Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
Jaysh al-Islam has two primary goals: to overthrow the Assad regime in Syria and to create a Sunni theocracy.[60] On September 23, 2013, the group’s predecessor, Liwa al-Islam, joined the Islamic Coalition, a political group that called for the opposition to the Assad Regime to be run only by groups fighting inside Syria and opposed the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, which was based in Turkey and largely comprised exiled Syrians.[61] The Coalition and Jaysh al-Islam seek to replace the Assad Regime with a government based on Shariah law. Alloush has stated that as part of Jaysh al-Islam’s central mission is to “fight Assad and [refuse] ISIS’s takfiri mentality.”[62]
Jaysh al-Islam is fundamentally a Salafist group. The former leader and main commander, Zahran Alloush, has called for a strict sharia-based Sunni theocracy and has publicly disapproved of secular democracies and the influence of Western governments. The group’s main goals and ideology is not believed to have changed since Alloush’s resignation in May 2018 from his leadership position. Where Jaysh al-Islam differs from groups like Al Qaeda (AQ) and the Islam State (IS) is that Jaysh al-Islam does not call for driving Westerners from the Middle East and creating a single Islamic state.[63] Jaysh al-Islam believes that AQ and the IS represent deviations from Islam and pose a danger to the revolution.
Alloush has also stated that Assad’s Alawite faith is directly at odds with the Islamic theocracy he hopes to create.[64] In an interview, Alloush expressed a desire to cleanse Damascus of all Shiites and Alawis.[65] Zahran Alloush later said that the Assad Regime should not be replaced by a sectarian or partisan government, but by a “technocratic body that represents the diversity of the Syrian people.” He also stated that while the group is composed of Muslims, Jaysh al-Islam does not see itself as an Islamic group and tolerates criticism from residents in the area it controls.[66]
In 2014, Jaysh al-Islam established the Unified Judiciary Council, a joint civilian governance body composed of scholars of Islamic law that controls the legal affairs of opposition groups in Damascus. The Council presides over matters concerning criminal law, family status, and civilian issues. It maintains several courts in Eastern Ghouta, an agricultural belt in the Damascus governorate. Seventeen different factions, including Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (Fateh al-Sham) and Ahrar al-Sham, initially ceded their legal power to the Council; however, support from various groups has fluctuated over time. Fateh al-Sham, for example, withdrew its support shortly after the Council’s founding. In early 2015, Jaysh al-Islam’s leader Zahran Alloush launched a crackdown against the Ummah Army, an organization composed of rival opposition brigades that was attempting to break away from the Council. Despite these defections, analysts refer to the Council as one of the most successful governance projects among opposition forces due to its high degree of coordination among a variety of groups and its willingness to allow civilians to pursue legal cases against military commanders.[67]
Though Jaysh al-Islam was initially hostile to Syrian peace negotiations, it eventually became active in peace talks with the Assad Regime. In December 2015, the group participated in a conference in Saudi Arabia and agreed to form the High Negotiations Committee for the Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces (HNC).[68] Jaysh al-Islam’s political leader, Mohammed Alloush, was appointed as the HNC’s chief negotiator. However, Alloush resigned from his position in May 2016 after the HNC suspended peace talks with the Assad Regime over worsening conditions on the ground in Syria. [69] In January 2017, Mohammad Alloush announced that he would lead an opposition delegation in peace talks with the Assad Regime in Kazakhstan.[70] While Alloush led peace talks in January, February and May 2017, he did not attend the July 2017 talks in Kazakhstan as part of the opposition delegation.[71] In October 2017, talks in Kazakhstan continued, including demarcating four de-escalation zones that house up to 800,000 citizens.[72] However, Russian-backed government forces reclaimed three of the four zones, leaving only Idlib under rebel control.[73] Included in these talks were delegations from the Syrian government, as well as rebel groups including Jaysh al-Islam and Ahrar al-Sham.[74] The talks were to be led by Russian, Iranian and Turkish ministers. Talks in Astana continued through November 2018 but ended in no results. The next talks in Astana were scheduled for February 2019.[75]
In addition to its peace efforts with the Syrian government, Jaysh al-Islam participated in ceasefire negotiations with Russian forces in July 2017. After three days of negotiations mediated by Egyptian officials, Jaysh al-Islam and the Russian Defense Ministry signed an agreement to cease hostilities and establish Russian military checkpoints in Eastern Ghouta and the city of Homs.[76]
Jaysh al-Islam fights the Syrian army and its affiliated forces. The group also targets other non-state actors, including the Islamic State (IS) and select Kurdish forces, such as the Peoples Protection Units (YPG).[77] In addition, the group has a standing policy of launching retaliatory missiles at central Damascus in response to regular Assad Regime aerial strikes in Eastern Ghouta.[78] In November 2015, the group also placed Syrian soldiers and their families in 100 cages in Eastern Ghouta to deter Assad Regime attacks on civilian areas, such as market and hospitals.[79] Jaysh al-Islam has also retaliated against aggressive actions by the Islamic State, executing IS fighters in response to an IS execution of Jaysh al-Islam fighters in 2015.[80]
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
July 2014: Jaysh al-Islam drove the Islamic State (IS) out of Eastern Ghouta in the province of Damascus (unknown casualties).[81]
February 5, 2015: Jaysh al-Islam attacked IS in Arsal, Lebanon while IS was launching an offensive against Hezbollah and the Lebanese Army. The leader of Jaysh al-Islam, Zahran Alloush, claimed that the attack was in response to an IS assault against one of Jaysh al-Islam’s headquarters. This is the first time the group launched an attack outside of Syria (1-3 killed, 1 wounded).[82]
Early 2015: Jaysh al-Islam leader Zahran Alloush launched a crackdown against the Ummah Army. The Ummah Army, composed of rival opposition brigades, was attempting to break away from the Unified Judiciary Council, of which Jaysh al-Islam and several other opposition groups were members. Jaysh al-Islam arrested 1,300 members of the Ummah Army and killed many others (unknown casualties).[83]
April 25, 2015: Jaysh al-Islam cooperated with other opposition groups, including Jabhat Fateh al-Sham and Ahrar al-Sham, to take over Jisr al-Shughur, a government stronghold in the province of Idlib (unknown casualties).[84]
July 2015: Jaysh al-Islam attacked IS in the Qaboun, Jobar, Barzeh, and Tishrin districts in Damascus. Jaysh al-Islam captured two IS headquarters and took 20 prisoners (7 killed, unknown wounded).[85]
July 2, 2015: Jaysh al-Islam executed 18 IS prisoners in retaliation for a previous IS execution of 3 Jaysh al-Islam militants (18 killed).[86]
September 10, 2015: Jaysh al-Islam seized two buildings in the women’s section of the Assad Regime’s Adra prison near Damascus. The prison held 5,000 prisoners (unknown casualties).[87]
February 11, 2016: Jaysh al-Islam attacked Syrian army soldiers between Adra and Douma in Eastern Ghouta (45+ killed, unknown wounded). [88]
April 7, 2016: Jaysh al-Islam allegedly used chemical weapons in an attack on the People’s Protection Units and other Kurdish forces in Aleppo. The group denied the allegations that it had employed chlorine chemical weapons. Instead, Jaysh al-Islam claimed to have disciplined a commander for using “modified GRAD rockets” (160 killed or wounded).[89]
April 28, 2017: Clashes erupted between Jaysh al-Islam and Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (Tahrir al-Sham) in Eastern Ghouta after Tahrir al-Sham kidnapped Jaysh al-Islam fighters who were en route to attack Assad Regime forces. Jaysh al-Islam also attacked Faylaq al-Rahman forces attempting to aid Tahrir al-Sham, as well as civilian protestors who called for an end to opposition infighting (95+ killed, 13+ wounded).[90]
Jaysh al-Islam is not designated as a terrorist organization by any major national government or international body. As of May 2019, the United States Department of State has not classified Jaysh al-Islam as a foreign terrorist group.[91]
Since December 2015, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) has been trying to assemble a list of terrorist groups in Syria. Russia, Lebanon, and Egypt support classifying Jaysh al-Islam as a terrorist group, but the UN Security Council has not been able to achieve a unanimous consensus.[92]
Jaysh al-Islam’s track record with its constituents is mixed. In 2015, Jaysh al-Islam leader Zahran Alloush claimed that the group tolerates criticism from residents in the area it controls.[93] However, Alloush had previously expressed a desire to cleanse Damascus of all Shiites and Alawis and was accused of using force to quell dissent in Damascus in 2015.[94] Jaysh al-Islam commanders were also accused of operating private prisons for political detainees, including Islamic State sympathizers.[95] Despite these accusations, analysts refer to Jaysh al-Islam’s Unified Judiciary Council as one of the most successful governance projects among opposition forces due in part to its willingness to allow civilians to pursue legal cases against military commanders.[96] In the deal reached in April 2018 between Jaysh al-Islam and Russian forces, Jaysh al-Islam withdrew 40,000 families and locals to northern Syria. [97]
Jaysh al-Islam has a history of participating in umbrella organizations and alliances with other Syrian armed groups. After Liwa al-Islam merged with other groups to form Jaysh al-Islam, the group remained in the Islamic Coalition and was briefly part of the Syrian Islamic Liberation Front until November 2013.[98] Shortly after Jaysh al-Islam was established, the group helped found the Islamic Front, an umbrella organization of 40,000-70,000 fighters that sought to replace the Assad Regime with an Islamic government.[99] Jaysh al-Islam’s leader, Zahran Alloush, served as the Islamic Front’s military commander.[100] The Islamic Front dissolved in mid-2014 due to disagreements between Jaysh al-Islam and Ahrar al-Sham. Shortly afterwards, Jaysh al-Islam claimed to have absorbed Suqqour al-Sham, a prominent Islamic Front group that was based primarily in the Idlib province. However, Suqqour al-Sham remained an independent group until it was absorbed by Ahrar al-Sham in spring 2015.[101] Despite past tensions, Jaysh al-Islam's Idlib fighters defected to Ahrar al-Sham in February 2017 after a series of skirmishes between Jabhat Fatah al-Sham and militant groups operating in the Idlib governorate.[102]
Following Zahran Alloush’s death in December 2015, tensions erupted between Jaysh al-Islam and other Damascus-based militant groups. In April 2016, Faylaq al-Rahman, a group that included the former Ajnad al-Sham Islamic Union and was supported by Fateh al-Sham, claimed that Jaysh al-Islam attempted to assassinate the former chief judge of the Unified Judiciary Council. In response to this accusation, Jaysh al-Islam began targeting Faylaq al-Rahman.[103] In May 2016, the groups agreed to a peace treaty at a conference in Qatar.[104]
Additionally, Jaysh al-Islam’s relationship with Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (Tahrir al-Sham, formerly Jabhat al-Nusra) has largely been characterized by discord. Tahrir al-Sham was originally founded as an Al Qaeda (AQ) affiliate in Syria. In response to growing AQ influence in the area, Saudi Arabia helped create Jaysh al-Islam to serve as a counterweight to AQ. Though the two groups managed to maintain some level of military cooperation against government forces in Idlib province, relations between the two organizations grew strained. In 2015, Tahrir al-Sham voiced opposition to the Jaysh al-Islam-linked Unified Judiciary Council.[105] Tensions reignited after Jaysh al-Islam’s new leader, Abu Hammam Bouwaidani, agreed to negotiate with the Assad Regime in December 2015. Tahrir al-Sham viewed this decision as treason and as a security threat. In response, Tahrir al-Sham established the Fustat Army political alliance to challenge Jaysh al-Islam’s political dominance in Eastern Ghouta.[106] Conflict between the two groups escalated to violence in January 2017 when Tahrir al-Sham began attacking militant groups that had sent representatives to the Kazakhstan peace talks, which were organized by the Assad Regime and Jaysh al-Islam’s leader, Mohammad Alloush.[107] Relations between these two groups remain violent, as evidenced by a series of clashes that began in Eastern Ghouta on April 28, 2017 and left 95 militants and protestors dead.[108]
Jaysh al-Islam has opposed the Islamic State (IS) since 2013. The group referred to IS as “enemy number one of the Syrian revolution” and has taken military action to drive IS from its territory.[109] By July 2014, Jaysh al-Islam had forced IS out of the eastern village of Ghouta.[110] In response, IS assassinated key Jaysh al-Islam commander Abu Mohammad Haroun.[111] The two groups continued to fight in Syria and in Lebanon throughout 2015. In July 2015, Jaysh al-Islam captured two IS headquarters in Damascus and executed 18 IS militants.[112] Jaysh al-Islam claimed that these actions were in retaliation for the beheading of three Jaysh al-Islam militants by IS earlier that year.[113]
Saudi Arabia reportedly helped establish Jaysh al-Islam in an attempt to counter the influence of Al Qaeda and its affiliates in Damascus.[114] Analysts also speculate that Saudi Arabia played a large role in establishing the Islamic Front umbrella group in late 2013.[115] Additionally in 2013, Saudi Arabia tried unsuccessfully to convince the United States to supply Jaysh al-Islam with anti-aircraft and anti-tank missiles. Similarly, Saudi Arabia failed to persuade Jordan to allow its territory to be used as a supply route for Jaysh al-Islam into Syria.[116]
In addition to its connections with Saudi Arabia, Jaysh al-Islam also has close ties with the Turkish government. In June 2015, Jaysh al-Islam’s leader Zahran Alloush went to Turkey to meet with representatives of foreign governments and Syrian insurgent groups. Many suspect that Turkey, along with other international actors, was preparing for Alloush to play a prominent role in organizing Syrian opposition groups in a military structure that would replace the Free Syrian Army’s Supreme Military Council.[117] In late 2015, Jaysh al-Islam also released a statement that it was in “complete solidarity with the Turkish government and is sending sincere condolences to the families of the victims” after a terrorist attack killed 100 civilians in Ankara.[118]
Qatar also provided financial assistance to Jaysh al-Islam. In May 2016, Qatar hosted a peace conference between the Jaysh al-Islam and Faylaq al-Rahman, an Islamist group active in Damascus and supported by Jabhat Fateh al-Sham.[119]
[1] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014; Hassan, Hassan. "The Army of Islam Is Winning in Syria." Foreign Policy. N.p., 1 Oct. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[2] “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report #4.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, 11 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[3] Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[4] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014; Hassan, Hassan. "The Army of Islam Is Winning in Syria." Foreign Policy. N.p., 1 Oct. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[5] “Syria direct: News Update 4-20-15.” Syria: direct. Syria: direct, 20 Apr. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report No. 5.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[6] Hassan, Hassan. “Front to Back.” Foreign Policy. The FP Group, 4 Mar. 2014. Web. 7 May, 2016.
[7] Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 1: Structure and Support." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 14 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 3: Negotiations." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 16 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[8] Lund, Aron. “Islamist Mergers in Syria: Ahrar al-Sham Swallows Suqour al-Sham.” Syria In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 23 mar. 2015. Web. 30 Apr. 2016.
[9] MacDonald, Alex. “Rise of Jaish al-Islam marks a turn in Syrian conflict.” Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 7 May. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[10] “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report #4.”The Carter Center. The Carter Center, 11 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[11] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[12] Ali, Abdallah Suleiman. “Jaish al-Islam confronts Islamic State in Arsal.” Al Monitor. Al Monitor, 5 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[13] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[14] “Syrian rebels take ‘almost all’ of key government city in Idlib province. Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 25 Apr. 2015. Web. 19 Jul. 2016; “Final Statement of the Conference of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces Rhiyadh.” France Diplomatie. France Diplomatie, 10 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[15] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[16] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[17] “On the Death of Zahran Alloush.” The Syria Institute. The Syria Institute, 25 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[18] Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016
[19] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016; Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian rebels agree in Qatar to stop fighting each other.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 May. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[20] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016; Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian rebels agree in Qatar to stop fighting each other.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 May. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[21] Al Khalidi, Suleiman. "Senior Syrian rebel negotiator says will head rebel delegation at peace talks. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 16 Jan. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[22] Mroue, Bassem. “Syrian rebels and insurgents battle in split over peace push.” The Big Story. Associated Press, 6 Feb. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[23] “Syrian Rebels in Eastern Ghouta Agree to Evacuate Imprisoned Nusra...” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 9 Mar. 2018, www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-ghouta-nusra/syrian-rebe....
[24] “Syrian rebels ‘fire on protestors’ calling for an end to infighting.” Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 1 May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017; “Weekly Conflict Summary: May 18-24, 2017.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017.
[25] Eltohamy, Amr. “The limits of Egypt’s role in the Syria crisis.” Egypt Pulse. Al-Monitor, 9 Aug. 2017. Web. 30 Aug. 2017.
[26] AFP. “Syria Suicide Blast Kills 23 Rebel Fighters near Jordan Border.” The Times of Israel, 12 Aug. 2017, www.timesofisrael.com/syria-suicide-blast-kills-23-rebel-fighters-near-j....
[27] “Syria War: Jaish Al-Islam to Evacuate Number of Eastern Ghouta Fighters.” BBC News, BBC, 9 Mar. 2018, www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-43351957.
[28] “Hay'at Tahrir Al-Sham (HTS).” Nuclear Stability in a Post-Arms Control World | Center for Strategic and International Studies, Center for Strategic and International Studies, www.csis.org/programs/transnational-threats-project/terrorism-background....
[29] Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian Rebels Jaish Al-Islam Refuse to Leave Ghouta: Spokesman.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 25 Mar. 2018, www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-ghouta-jaish/syrian-rebe....
[30] “Deal Reached to Surrender Last Rebel-Held Town in Eastern Ghouta.” Aljazeera, 8 Apr. 2018, www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/04/deal-reached-surrender-rebel-held-town-ea....
[31] AFP. “Syria Declares Full Recapture of Ghouta Rebel Enclave.” The Times of Israel, 15 Apr. 2018, www.timesofisrael.com/syria-declares-full-recapture-of-ghouta-rebel-encl....
[32] Lund, Aron. “Freedom fighters? Cannibals? The truth about Syria’s rebels.” The Independent. The Independent, 17 Jun. 2013. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[33] Lund, Aron. “Freedom fighters? Cannibals? The truth about Syria’s rebels.” The Independent. The Independent, 17 Jun. 2013. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 3: Negotiations." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 16 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[34] Lund, Aron. “Is Zahran Alloush in Amman?” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 6 June. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; "Missile Blast Wounds Syrian Rebel Commander: Activists." Reuters. N.p., 20 Feb. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; “Russian raid kills prominent Syrian commander.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[35] Cafarella, Jennifer and Casagrande, Genevieve. “Middle East Security Report 29: Syrian Armed Opposition Groups.” Institute for the Study of War. March. 2016. Web. 20 Jul. 2016; “Russian raid kills prominent Syrian commander.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[36] “The Death of Zahran Alloush May Tip the Scales in Favor of the Regime.” Al Bawaba, Al Bawaba, 27 Dec. 2015, www.albawaba.com/news/death-zahran-alloush-may-tip-scales-favor-regime-7....
[37] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[38] “‘Mohammed Alloush’ Resigns Office of Jaish Al Islam' Political Commission.” Call Syria, 3 May 2018, nedaa-sy.com/en/news/5908.
[39] “Syria conflict: Islamist rebel named opposition chief negotiator.” BBC. BBC News, 20 Jan. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Al-Khalidi, Suleiman. “Syrian opposition negotiator quits after peace talks’ failure. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 30 May. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[40] Al Khalidi, Suleiman. "Senior Syrian rebel negotiator says will head rebel delegation at peace talks. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 16 Jan. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[41] “Fifth Round Of Syria Peace Talks Under Way In Astana.” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 4 July 2017, www.rferl.org/a/syria-astana-talks-continue-sdf-breaches-raqqa-wall/2859....
[42] “Former Jaish Al-Islam Leader Stole Millions, Launches Businesses in Turkey & Saudi Arabia: Report.” PressTV, 6 May 2018, www.presstv.com/Detail/2018/05/06/560842/Former-Jaish-alIslam-leader-stole-millions-launches-businesses-in-Turkey--Saudi-Arabia-Report; “Former Jaysh Al-Islam Leader Stole Mlns to Make Business in Turkey - Reports.” Sputnik International, 5 May 2018, sputniknews.com/middleeast/201805051064179638-jayish-al-islam-leader-steals/; “‘Mohammed Alloush’ Resigns Office of Jaish Al Islam' Political Commission.” Call Syria, 3 May 2018, nedaa-sy.com/en/news/5908.
[43] Rfe/rl. “UN Syria Envoy Calls Astana Talks On Syria 'Missed Opportunity'.” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 29 Nov. 2018, www.rferl.org/a/un-syria-envoy-calls-astana-talks-on-syria-missed-opport....
[44] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014.
[45] Black, Ian. "Syria Crisis: Saudi Arabia to Spend Millions to Train New Rebel Force." The Guardian. N.p., 08 Nov. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[46] Oweis, Khaled Yacoub. "Insight: Saudi Arabia Boosts Salafist Rivals to Al Qaeda in Syria." Reuters. N.p., 01 Oct. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[47] “On the Death of Zahran Alloush.” The Syria Institute. The Syria Institute, 25 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[48] Cafarella, Jennifer and Casagrande, Genevieve. “Middle East Security Report 29: Syrian Armed Opposition Groups.” Institute for the Study of War. March. 2016. Web. 20 Jul. 2016.
[49] Hassan, Hassan. "The Army of Islam Is Winning in Syria." Foreign Policy. N.p., 1 Oct. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; Oweis, Khaled Yacoub. “Insight: Saudi Arabia boosts Salafist rivals to al Qaeda in Syria.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 1 Oct 2013. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; John Hudson and Colum Lynch. “The Road to a Syria Peace Deal Runs Through Russia.” Foreign Policy. The FP Group. 12 Feb. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[50] Kenner, David. “Saudi Arabia’s Shadow War.” 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[51] Zion, Ilan. "Islamist Rebel Air Force Takes off in Syria." The Times of Israel. N.p., 3 Nov. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[52] Zion, Ilan. "Islamist Rebel Air Force Takes off in Syria." The Times of Israel. N.p., 3 Nov. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[53] Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[54] Said, H, and M al-Frieh. “Zakharova: Russia Strongly Condemns Use of Chlorine by Jaish Al-Islam in Aleppo.” Syrian Arab News Agency, 15 Apr. 2016, sana.sy/en/?p=74190.
[55] Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[56] “Syrian Army Finds Militants’ Chemical Weapons Workshop in Eastern Ghouta.” PressTV, 13 Mar. 2018, www.presstv.com/Detail/2018/03/13/555358/Syria-Eastern-Ghouta-chemical-w....
[57] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014.
[58] “Syria direct: News Update 4-20-15.” Syria: direct. Syria: direct, 20 Apr. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report No. 5.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[59] Ali, Abdallah Suleiman. “Jaish al-Islam confronts Islamic State in Arsal.” Al Monitor. Al Monitor, 5 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[60] Lund, Aron, et al. “The Syrian Rebel Who Tried to Build an Islamist Paradise.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 31 Mar. 2017, www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/the-syrian-rebel-who-built-an-is....
[61] “Key Syrian rebels reject National Coalition.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Sep. 2013. Web. 7 Jul. 2016; Evans, Dominic. “Factbox: Syrian rebels against opposition coalition.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 Sep. 2013. Web. 29 Jun. 2016.
[62] Ouiess, Hadeel. “The Rebel commander of Damascus.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 13 Jul. 2016.
[63] Lund, Aron, et al. “The Syrian Rebel Who Tried to Build an Islamist Paradise.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 31 Mar. 2017, www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/the-syrian-rebel-who-built-an-is....
[64] Lund, Aron, et al. “The Syrian Rebel Who Tried to Build an Islamist Paradise.” POLITICO, POLITICO, 31 Mar. 2017, www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/03/the-syrian-rebel-who-built-an-is....
[65] Landis, Joshua. “ Zahran `Alloush: His Ideology and Beliefs.” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 15 Dec. 2013. Web. 15 Jul. 2016.
[66] Ouiess, Hadeel. “The Rebel commander of Damascus.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 13 Jul. 2016.
[67] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[68] “Final Statement of the Conference of Syrian Revolution and Opposition Forces Rhiyadh.” France Diplomatie. France Diplomatie, 10 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[69] Al-Khalidi Suleiman. “Syria peace talks near collapse as opposition declares pause.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Al-Khalidi, Suleiman. “Syrian opposition negotiator quits after peace talks’ failure. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 30 May. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[70] Al Khalidi, Suleiman. "Senior Syrian rebel negotiator says will head rebel delegation at peace talks. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 16 Jan. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[71] “Fifth Round Of Syria Peace Talks Under Way In Astana.” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 4 July 2017, www.rferl.org/a/syria-astana-talks-continue-sdf-breaches-raqqa-wall/2859....
[72] Al Jazeera. “Syrian War: All You Need to Know about the Astana Talks.” GCC News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 29 Oct. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/syrian-war-astana-talks-171029160554816.html.
[73] “Syria: the Astana Peace Process.” France 24, France 24, 5 Sept. 2018, www.france24.com/en/20180905-syria-astana-peace-process.
[74] Al Jazeera. “Syrian War: All You Need to Know about the Astana Talks.” GCC News | Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 29 Oct. 2017, www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/10/syrian-war-astana-talks-171029160554816.html.
[75] Rfe/rl. “UN Syria Envoy Calls Astana Talks On Syria 'Missed Opportunity'.” RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty, 29 Nov. 2018, www.rferl.org/a/un-syria-envoy-calls-astana-talks-on-syria-missed-opport....
[76] Eltohamy, Amr. “The limits of Egypt’s role in the Syria crisis.” Egypt Pulse. Al-Monitor, 9 Aug. 2017. Web. 30 Aug. 2017.
[77] Zion, Ilan. "Islamist Rebel Air Force Takes off in Syria." The Times of Israel. N.p., 3 Nov. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; Ali, Abdallah Suleiman. “Jaish al-Islam confronts Islamic State in Arsal.” Al Monitor. Al Monitor, 5 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[78] “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report No. 5.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[79] “On the Death of Zahran Alloush.” The Syria Institute. The Syria Institute, 25 Dec. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[80] “Mutual executions carry out by IS and al-Islam Army.” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 2 Jul. 2015. Web. 21 Jul. 2016; “Syrian rebels filmed shooting Islamic State militants.” BBC. BBC News, 1 Jul. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[81] “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report #4.”The Carter Center. The Carter Center, 11 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[82] Ali, Abdallah Suleiman. “Jaish al-Islam confronts Islamic State in Arsal.” Al Monitor. Al Monitor, 5 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[83] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[84] “Syrian rebels take ‘almost all’ of key government city in Idlib province. Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 25 Apr. 2015. Web. 19 Jul. 2016.
[85] Dick, Marlin. “Rebels take on ISIS in new Damascus front.” The daily Star-Lebanon. The Daily Star, 17 Apr. 2015. Web. 19 Jul. 2016.
[86] “Mutual executions carry out by IS and al-Islam Army.” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 2 Jul. 2015. Web. 21 Jul. 2016; “Syrian rebels filmed shooting Islamic State militants.” BBC. BBC News, 1 Jul. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[87] “Rebels storm Syria's largest prison near Damascus: monitor.” Agence-France Presse. Yahoo News, 10 Sep. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[88] Tension and resentment in Alawite mountains from the regime after the death of more than 45 in an ambush by the Army of Islam in the Eastern Ghouta.” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 11 Feb. 2016. Web. 21 Jul. 2016.
[89] Heller, Sam. “One Kurdish Neighborhood in the Crossfire.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; “al-Islam army keeps secrecy about the investigations of a military commander.” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 13 Apr. 2016. Web. 21 Jul. 2016.
[90] “Syrian rebels ‘fire on protestors’ calling for an end to infighting.” Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 1 May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017; “Weekly Conflict Summary: May 18-24, 2017.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017.
[91] “Foreign Terrorist Organizations.” U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/123085.htm.
[92] Miles, Tom and Irish, John. “Syrian terrorist list produces 163 names and no agreement.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 17 Feb. 2016. Web. 28 May. 2016; “Countries List Of Armed Groups Acting In Syria.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 2016. Web. 7 May. 2016.
[93] Ouiess, Hadeel. “The Rebel commander of Damascus.” The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast, 15 Dec. 2015. Web. 13 Jul. 2016.
[94] Landis, Joshua. “ Zahran `Alloush: His Ideology and Beliefs.” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 15 Dec. 2013. Web. 15 Jul. 2016; Lund, Aron. “Is Zahran Alloush in Amman?” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 6 June. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[95] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[96] Lund, Aron. “An Islamist Experiment: Political Order in East Ghouta.” Syrian In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 18 Apr. 2016. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[97] Last Rebel Group Begins Leaving Ghouta, Syrian State Media Reports.” ABC News, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 3 Apr. 2018, www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-03/eastern-ghouta--largest-syrian-rebel-grou....
[98] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.
[99] Hassan, Hassan. “Front to Back.” Foreign Policy. The FP Group, 4 Mar. 2014. Web. 7 May, 2016.
[100] Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 1: Structure and Support." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 14 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 3: Negotiations." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 16 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[101] Lund, Aron. “Islamist Mergers in Syria: Ahrar al-Sham Swallows Suqour al-Sham.” Syria In Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 23 mar. 2015. Web. 30 Apr. 2016.
[102] Mroue, Bassem. “Syrian rebels and insurgents battle in split over peace push.” The Big Story. Associated Press, 6 Feb. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[103] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016; Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian rebels agree in Qatar to stop fighting each other.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 May. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[104] Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian rebels agree in Qatar to stop fighting each other.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 May. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[105] “Syrian rebels take ‘almost all’ of key government city in Idlib province. Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 25 Apr. 2015. Web. 19 Jul. 2016; "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014.
[106] Lund, Aron. “After Zahran: Rising Tension in the East Ghouta.” Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 19 Apr. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[107] Al Khalidi, Suleiman. "Senior Syrian rebel negotiator says will head rebel delegation at peace talks. Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 16 Jan. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017; Mroue, Bassem. “Syrian rebels and insurgents battle in split over peace push.” The Big Story. Associated Press, 6 Feb. 2017. Web. 10 Feb. 2017.
[108] “Syrian rebels ‘fire on protestors’ calling for an end to infighting.” Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 1 May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017; “Weekly Conflict Summary: May 18-24, 2017.” The Carter Center. The Carter Center, May. 2017. Web. 20 Aug. 2017.
[109] MacDonald, Alex. “Rise of Jaish al-Islam marks a turn in Syrian conflict.” Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 7 May. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[110] “Syria Countrywide Conflict Report #4.”The Carter Center. The Carter Center, 11 Sep. 2014. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[111] “Reinforcements rush to Aleppo as battles rage.” The Daily Star-Lebanon. The Daily Star, 9 Jul. 2014. Web. 19 Jul. 2016.
[112] Ali, Abdallah Suleiman. “Jaish al-Islam confronts Islamic State in Arsal.” Al Monitor. Al Monitor, 5 Feb. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016; Dick, Marlin. “Rebels take on ISIS in new Damascus front.” The daily Star-Lebanon. The Daily Star, 17 Apr. 2015. Web. 19 Jul. 2016; “Mutual executions carry out by IS and al-Islam Army.” Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, 2 Jul. 2015. Web. 21 Jul. 2016.
[113] “Syrian rebels filmed shooting Islamic State militants.” BBC. BBC News, 1 Jul. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[114] "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 05 Aug. 2014.
[115] Lund, Aron. "The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 1: Structure and Support." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 14 Jan. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.
[116] Black, Ian. "Syria Crisis: Saudi Arabia to Spend Millions to Train New Rebel Force." The Guardian. N.p., 08 Nov. 2013. Web. 07 Aug. 2014; Cafarella, Jennifer and Casagrande, Genevieve. “Middle East Security Report 29: Syrian Armed Opposition Powerbrokers.” Institute for the Study of War. Institute for the Study of War, Mar. 2016. Web. 2 Aug. 2016.
[117] Lund, Aron. “Is Zahran Alloush in Amman?” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 6 June. 2015. Web. 14 Jul. 2016.
[118] Arango, Tim. “Deadly Ankara Attack Not Enough to Unify a Polarized Turkey.” New York Times. New York Times, 12 Oct. 2015. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.
[119] Barrington, Lisa. “Syrian rebels agree in Qatar to stop fighting each other.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 25 May. 2016. Web. 18 Jul. 2016.