Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
There is little available information about the Ras Kamboni Movement’s ideology. The group has been described as Islamist. A defining feature of the group has been its opposition to Al Shabaab, which the Ras Kamboni Movement has asserted is Somalia’s greatest problem. Abdullahi Mohamud Mohamed, a spokesperson for the Ras Kamboni Movement, has claimed that the group’s principal goal is to expel Al Shabaab from southern Somalia. The Ras Kamboni Movement’s secondary goal, according to Mohamed, is to control the port city of Kismayo as well as to “establish a semi-autonomous state” in the region.[26] Accordingly, the Ras Kamboni Movement’s activities have centered on gaining and maintaining control of Kismayo, over which it has held de facto control since 2012. The group has continuously fought the Somali government as well as other militias for control of the city.[27]
The Ras Kamboni Movement has engaged in some political activity, principally in the city of Kismayo. Madobe, the group’s leader, has claimed that the Ras Kamboni Movement is not merely a militia but also a political party.[28] In November 2012, the Ras Kamboni Movement organized protests in Kismayo against certain policies of Somalia’s new federal government; for example, the group claimed that its region’s economic growth was harmed by the government’s refusal to allow charcoal exports.[29]
In early 2013, various clans—including Ras Kamboni Movement members—met in order to negotiate a power-sharing arrangement for the Jubaland region, an area in southern Somalia that includes Kismayo. The lengthy negotiation process is sometimes referred to as the Jubaland Convention. Madobe was initially elected president of Jubaland, but a major rival warlord named Barre Hirale—who was allegedly backed by the Somali government—also declared himself president. Clan representatives continued to meet throughout 2013 with the goal of agreeing upon and creating a Jubaland government.[30] The Somali federal government, which was originally barred from attending or participating in the Jubaland Convention, unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate with individual Jubaland Convention participants. In March, for example, Somali Prime Minister Abdi Farah Shirdon met with Madobe in Kismayo, but the negotiations were unproductive and soon broke down.[31] Finally, in August 2013, the Ras Kamboni Movement and the Somali federal government concluded an agreement that formally called for a Jubaland interim government and allowed the Somali federal government nominal control of Kismayo. However, the Ras Kamboni Movement largely continued to maintain de facto control of the city.[32] In November 2013, Jubaland Convention participants convened in Mogadishu and concluded an agreement that formally recognized Madobe as Jubaland’s leader.[33]
The Ras Kamboni Movement has also participated in peace talks regarding the violence caused by warring militias in Kismayo. In 2014, Barre Hirale’s militia agreed to negotiations with the Ras Kamboni Movement and other militant groups in order to end violence in the city. The African Union and the Somali government have been heavily involved in brokering these negotiations.[34]
In 2015, Madobe was reelected as president of Jubaland, and he has promised to continue reconciliation talks that involve the Somali government and various clans.[35] As of 2019, there is no public evidence attesting to whether these discussions did in fact occur. Madobe is currently running for another term in office with elections scheduled for August 2019.[36]
The Ras Kamboni Movement’s principal targets appear to be other militant organizations, especially Al Shabaab, which the Ras Kamboni Movement has vowed to expel from southern Somalia. The group has fought Al Shabaab for control of various areas in southern Somalia, including the town of Ras Kamboni and the port city of Kismayo. The group has often worked with Somali or Kenyan government troops against Al Shabaab and other militant organizations. However, the Ras Kamboni Movement has also fought against government forces for control of various areas, especially while consolidating control of Kismayo.[37]
The Ras Kamboni Movement has been accused of conducting constant robberies and other violent acts throughout Kismayo, its main stronghold, and it once apprehended hundreds of city residents in an attempt to find fighters from Al Shabaab and other militias.[38]
Ras Kamboni Movement fighters have conducted at least one kidnapping for ransom.[39]
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
September 11, 2011: Gunmen attacked David and Judith Tebbutt, a British couple staying at a resort on the Kenyan island of Kiwayu, about 25 miles from the border with Somalia. The gunmen killed David and kept Judith hostage for six months, demanding ransom. The ransom was raised and paid by Judith’s son, Oliver, and Judith was released in March 2012. The Ras Kamboni Movement claimed responsibility for the attack. (1 killed, 0 wounded).[40]
October 20, 2011: Assisted by Kenyan forces, the Ras Kamboni Movement captured the town of Ras Kamboni in southern Somalia, driving Al Shabaab from the area. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[41]
November 11, 2011: The Ras Kamboni Movement, in cooperation with the Somali National Army, launched an attack on an Al Shabaab base near the city of Afmadow in southern Somalia. (7 killed, unknown wounded).[42]
February 2, 2012: The Ras Kamboni Movement, in cooperation with Kenyan forces, captured an Al Shabaab base in the town of Badhadhe in southern Somalia. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[43]
March 8, 2012: Kenyan, Somali Transitional Federal Government (TFG), and Ras Kamboni Movement forces battled Al Shabaab in the village of Hayo in southern Somalia. (5 killed, 1 injured).[44]
September 2012: The Ras Kamboni Movement allegedly worked with a coalition of African Union, Kenyan, and Somali government troops to drive Al Shabaab out of the city of Kismayo. However, some Somali officials denied this cooperation. (unknown killed, unknown injured).[45]
November 21, 2012: After a grenade was thrown at Madobe’s home in Kismayo, Ras Kamboni Movement militants conducted shooting attacks throughout the city while allegedly seeking the perpetrator. (unknown killed, unknown wounded).[46]
The Ras Kamboni Brigade is not designated as a terrorist organization by the United States or the European Union.
Since 2012, the Ras Kamboni Movement has mostly controlled the major port city of Kismayo. The group has conducted street patrols and set up security checkpoints throughout the city.[47] Additionally, the group has been accused of conducting constant robberies and other violent acts throughout Kismayo, and it once apprehended hundreds of city residents in an attempt to find fighters from Al Shabaab and other militias.[48] In anticipation of upcoming August 2019 elections, Ahmed Adobe, leader of the Ras Kamboni Movement and president of Somalia’s Jubaland state secured the support of several local elders in Garissa County. They were reportedly grateful for the Ras Kamboni Movement’s role in expelling Al Shabaab from the city of Kismayo in 2012.[49]
Most of the Ras Kamboni Movement’s fighters have been from the Ogaden clan, the largest clan in southern Somalia.[50]
Since the Ras Kamboni Movement’s beginnings, it has had a rivalry with Al Shabaab. Madobe originally broke away from the Ras Kamboni Brigade in order to form the Ras Kamboni Movement when elements of the former joined Al Shabaab. The Ras Kamboni Movement has asserted that Al Shabaab is Somalia’s greatest problem. Abdullahi Mohamud Mohamed, a spokesperson for the Ras Kamboni Movement, has claimed that the group’s principal goal is to expel Al Shabaab from southern Somalia.[51] The Ras Kamboni Movement has fought Al Shabaab for control of various areas, especially the city of Kismayo, and has worked with government forces to launch attacks against the group. In October 2011, for example, the Ras Kamboni Movement captured the town of Ras Kamboni from Al Shabaab and forced the group from the area with assistance from Kenyan troops. The following month, again with assistance from Kenya, Ras Kamboni Movement fighters seized weapons and supplies from Al Shabaab bases in Tabta and Afmadow.[52] In 2012, the Ras Kamboni Movement—together with the African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM), Kenyan, and Somali government troops—forced Al Shabaab from Kismayo. The Ras Kamboni Movement has continued to battle remaining Al Shabaab fighters in the city.[53]
In attempts to strengthen control of its territories, the Ras Kamboni Movement has also allied with or fought against other militant groups in southern Somalia. In February 2013, for example, while consolidating control of Kismayo, the Ras Kamboni Movement allegedly allied with the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF)—a Somali nationalist separatist group—and fought against Somali government forces.[54] Also in 2013, various clans—including Ras Kamboni Movement members—met in order to negotiate a power-sharing arrangement for the Jubaland region, an area in southern Somalia that includes Kismayo. The lengthy negotiation process is sometimes referred to as the Jubaland Convention. Madobe was initially elected president of Jubaland, but a major rival warlord named Barre Hirale—who was allegedly backed by the Somali government—also declared himself president. Barre Hirale’s militia, like many of the militias fighting the Ras Kamboni Movement, was a clan militia and has been a principal opponent of the Ras Kamboni Movement in Kismayo.[55]
In 2014, Barre Hirale’s militia agreed to talks with the Ras Kamboni Movement and other warring militias in order to end violence in Kismayo.[56] In 2015, Madobe was reelected as president of Jubaland, and he has promised to continue reconciliation talks that involve the Somali government and various clans.[57] As of 2019, there is no public evidence attesting to any efforts by Madobe to fulfill this promise.
Madobe’s relationship with the national government in Mogadishu has only deteriorated since 2015. Following increased tensions between Somalia’s states and the federal government, the provincial presidents, including Madobe, decided in 2018 to suspend cooperation with Mogadishu.[58] Consequently, the Somali federal government is reportedly attempting to thwart Madobe’s re-election.[59]
The Ras Kamboni Movement, unlike its predecessor, has cooperated with various governments, especially against Al Shabaab. In 2012, the Ras Kamboni Movement allegedly worked with a coalition of African Union, Kenyan, and Somali government troops to drive Al Shabaab out of the city of Kismayo, although some Somali officials denied this cooperation.[60]
The Ras Kamboni Movement’s main source of outside support has been the Kenyan government, which has often partnered with the group for economic or military purposes. Kenyan troops have allegedly helped the Ras Kamboni Movement continue to export charcoal from Kismayo in spite of a UN ban on the charcoal trade. Kenya has also allegedly provided support for Madobe and for the goal of an autonomous state in Jubaland, and it was a key partner of the Ras Kamboni Movement in expelling Al Shabaab from Kismayo. The Kenyan government’s support for the Ras Kamboni Movement reportedly stems from Kenya’s desire to eradicate Al Shabaab and to establish a strong government in Jubaland so as to minimize security threats in the region. Kenya’s support for the Ras Kamboni Movement has sometimes negatively affected the Kenyan government’s relationship with the Somali government.[61]
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[2] Estelle, Emily, et al. “Gulf of Aden Security Review.” AEI Critical Threats Project. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[3] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015. American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.
[4] Warah, Rasna. War Crimes: How warlords, politicians, foreign governments and aid agencies conspired to create a failed state in Somalia. Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2014.}} {{Khalif, Abdulkadir. “Somalia: Flights Carrying Khat Banned From Kismayu Airport.” Daily Nation, 6 Oct. 2008. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 December 2008 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 751 (1992) concerning Somalia addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Dec. 2008. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Roggio, Bill. “Shabaab absorbs southern Islamist group, splits Hizbul Islam.” The Long War Journal, 1 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[5] Roggio, Bill. “The Battle of Ras Kamboni.” The Long War Journal, 8 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{“US launches new Somalia raids.” The Guardian, 9 Jan. 2007. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Goldsmith, Paul. “Somalia: Taliban Now Coming to a Guerrilla War Theatre Near You.” The East African, 22 June 2009. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[6] Harnisch, Christopher. “The Terror Threat from Somalia: The Internationalization of Al Shabaab.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 12 Feb. 2010. Web. 20 Aug 2015.
[7] Roggio, Bill. “Shabaab absorbs southern Islamist group, splits Hizbul Islam.” The Long War Journal, 1 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Horadam, Nathaniel. “Somalia’s Second Islamist Threat: A Backgrounder on Hizb al Islam.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Roggio, Bill. “Hizbul Islam joins Shabaab in Somalia.” The Long War Journal, 19 Dec. 2010. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[8] Roggio, Bill. “Shabaab absorbs southern Islamist group, splits Hizbul Islam.” The Long War Journal, 1 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{United Nations Security Council. “Letter dated 10 March 2010 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 751 (1992) and 1907 (2009) concerning Somalia and Eritrea addressed to the President of the Security Council.” 10 Mar. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[9] “Islamist Ally Turns on Somalia's al-Shabab.” Voice of America, 24 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[10] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[11] Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{“Still dangerous.” The Economist, 27 June 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[12] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[13] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[14] Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[15] Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[16] “Somalia: Jubaland Reconciliation Conference Concluded With Peace Deal.” Garowe Online, 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[17] Sheikh, Abdi. “Somali warlord agrees to talks, boosts government peace efforts.” Reuters, 31 Aug. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[18] Hassan, Abdiqani. “Somali region re-elects former warlord to fight al Shabaab.” Reuters, 15 Aug. 2015. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[19] Jorgic, Drazen. “Former Islamist warlord elected president of Somali region.” Reuters, 15 May 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{McCormick, Ty. “Exclusive: U.S. Operates Drones From Secret Bases in Somalia.” 2 July 2015. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Hassan, Abdiqani. “Somali region re-elects former warlord to fight al Shabaab.” Reuters, 15 Aug. 2015. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[20] “Jubaland’s Ahmed Madobe holds a secret meeting with Garissa leaders.” Goobjoog News. 18 Dec. 2018. Web. 23 Feb. 2019. <https://goobjoog.com/english/jubalands-ahmed-madobe-holds-a-secret-meeti....
[21] Roggio, Bill. “Shabaab absorbs southern Islamist group, splits Hizbul Islam.” The Long War Journal, 1 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[22] McConnell, Tristan. “Saving Somalia: A matter of charcoal and UN bureaucracy.” Hiiraan Online, 29 Oct. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{“A charred harvest.” The Economist, 9 Oct. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Anderson, David M., and Jacob McKnight. “Kenya at War: Al-Shabaab and Its Enemies in Eastern Africa.” African Affairs, 19 Dec. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[23] “Jubbaland President Resumes Illicit Charcoal Exports Despite UN Ban.” Shabelle Media Network. 8 March 2018. Web. 23 February 2019. <http://radioshabelle.com/jubbaland-president-resumes-illicit-charcoal-ex....
[24] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[25] “Somalia: Regional Rivalries and the Fight for Kismayo.” Stratfor, 28 June 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Beerdhige, Mohamed. “Who is Fighting in Southern Somalia?” SomaliaReport, 20 Nov. 2011. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[26] Mohamed, Hani. “ASWJ and Ras Kamboni Militias Eye Kismayo.” SomaliaReport, 25 July 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[27] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{“Islamist Ally Turns on Somalia's al-Shabab.” Voice of America, 24 Feb. 2010. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{“Still dangerous.” The Economist, 27 June 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[28] Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[29] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[30] Jorgic, Drazen. “Former Islamist warlord elected president of Somali region.” Reuters, 15 May 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[31] Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{“Somalia: Jubaland State Conference Convenes, Mogadishu Officials Absent.” Garowe Online, 28 Feb. 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[32] “Agreement between the Federal Government of Somalia and Jubba Delegation.” Hiiraan Online. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[33] “Somalia: Jubaland Reconciliation Conference Concluded With Peace Deal.” Garowe Online, 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[34] Sheikh, Abdi. “Somali warlord agrees to talks, boosts government peace efforts.” Reuters, 31 Aug. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[35] Hassan, Abdiqani. “Somali region re-elects former warlord to fight al Shabaab.” Reuters, 15 Aug. 2015. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[36] “Jubaland’s Ahmed Madobe holds a secret meeting with Garissa leaders.” Goobjoog News. 18 Dec. 2018. Web. 23 Feb. 2019. <https://goobjoog.com/english/jubalands-ahmed-madobe-holds-a-secret-meeti....
[37] Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Mohamed, Hani. “ASWJ and Ras Kamboni Militias Eye Kismayo.” SomaliaReport, 25 July 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[38] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[39] Fricker, Martin. “The $1million dollar drop: British hostage Judith Tebbutt freed after ransom is airdropped to Somali pirates.” Mirror, 22 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}}} {{Cochrane, Kira. “Judith Tebutt: my six months as a hostage of Somali kidnappers.” The Guardian, 9 July 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Bloxham, Andy, and Mike Pflanz. “Kenya kidnap victim being held on Somali island.” The Telegraph, 15 Sep. 2011. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[40] Fricker, Martin. “The $1million dollar drop: British hostage Judith Tebbutt freed after ransom is airdropped to Somali pirates.” Mirror, 22 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Cochrane, Kira. “Judith Tebutt: my six months as a hostage of Somali kidnappers.” The Guardian, 9 July 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Bloxham, Andy, and Mike Pflanz. “Kenya kidnap victim being held on Somali island.” The Telegraph, 15 Sep. 2011. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[41] Gettleman, Jeffrey, and Josh Kron. “Kenya Reportedly Didn’t Warn U.S. of Somalia Incursion.” The New York Times, 20 Oct. 2011.}} {{Zimmerman, Katherine, and Kennan Khatib. “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi.” AEI Critical Threats Project, 9 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[42] Zimmerman, Katherine, and Kennan Khatib. “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi.” AEI Critical Threats Project, 9 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[43] Zimmerman, Katherine, and Kennan Khatib. “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi.” AEI Critical Threats Project, 9 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[44] Zimmerman, Katherine, and Kennan Khatib. “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi.” AEI Critical Threats Project, 9 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[45] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[46] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[47] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Momanyi, Bernard. “Pictures: KDF in control of Kismayu.” CapitalNews, 4 Oct. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[48] McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[49] “Jubaland elections: Garissa elders endorse Ahmed Madobe.” Caasimada. 10 Feb. 2019. Web. 23 Feb. 2019. <https://www.caasimada.net/jubaland-elections-garissa-elders-endorse-ahme....
[50] Momanyi, Bernard. “Pictures: KDF in control of Kismayu.” CapitalNews, 4 Oct. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Gisesa, Nyambega. “The smiling warlord who controls Ras Kamboni.” Hiiraan Online, 12 June 2012. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[51] Mohamed, Hani. “ASWJ and Ras Kamboni Militias Eye Kismayo.” SomaliaReport, 25 July 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[52] “Somalia: Ras Kamboni Movement Claims Victory Over a Battle in Southern Region.” Shabelle Media Network, 25 Nov. 2011. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[53] Roble, Muhyadin Ahmed. “Can Somalia’s al-Shabaab Survive the Loss of Kismayo?”. Terrorism Monitor 10.19, 18 Oct. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Gettleman, Jeffrey, and Josh Kron. “Kenya Reportedly Didn’t Warn U.S. of Somalia Incursion.” The New York Times, 20 Oct. 2011.}} {{Zimmerman, Katherine, and Kennan Khatib. “Timeline: Operation Linda Nchi.” AEI Critical Threats Project, 9 Mar. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[54] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[55] “Somalia: Jubaland Reconciliation Conference Concluded With Peace Deal.” Garowe Online, 6 Nov. 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Jorgic, Drazen. “Former Islamist warlord elected president of Somali region.” Reuters, 15 May 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.}} {{Bass, Breuk, and Katherine Zimmerman. “Challenges to America’s Counterterrorism Strategy in Somalia.” Critical Threats Project, American Enterprise Institute, 10 June 2013. Web. 10 Nov. 2015.
[56] Sheikh, Abdi. “Somali warlord agrees to talks, boosts government peace efforts.” Reuters, 31 Aug. 2014. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[57] Hassan, Abdiqani. “Somali region re-elects former warlord to fight al Shabaab.” Reuters, 15 Aug. 2015. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[58] Hassan, Mohamed Olad. “Somali Regional States Suspend Ties With Federal Government.” Voice of America. 8 Sept. 2018. Web. 4 March 2019. <https://www.voanews.com/a/somali-regional-states-suspend-ties-with-feder....
[59] “Somalia: Fresh talks to mediate Jubbaland and Central Govt held in Kenya.” Garowe Online. 16 Feb. 2019. Web. 4 March 2019. <https://www.garoweonline.com/en/news/somalia/somalia-fresh-talks-to-medi....
[60] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{Bloom, Rebecca, and Eben Kaplan. “Backgrounder: Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF).” Council on Foreign Relations, 1 Nov. 2007. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.
[61] American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism: 2014. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014.}} {{McGregor, Andrew. “Briefs.” Terrorism Monitor 10.23, 14 Dec. 2012. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{Kron, Josh. “Report Ties Kenyan Army to Militants’ Smuggling.” The New York Times, 12 Nov. 2015. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{“Hassan Sheikh Mohamud sounds out Kenyatta.” The Indian Ocean Newsletter, 6 June 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.}} {{ISS Africa. “A new solution that brings new problems for Somalia's Jubaland - ISS.” defenceWeb, 15 July 2013. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.