Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
The Oath Keepers’ ideology aligns with the anti-government patriot/militia movement, which claims that collaboration between the federal government and global elites threaten the American way of life. Known as the New World Order, this supposed cabal of elites is supposedly bent on dismantling the rights of U.S. citizens, most notably the Second Amendment right to bear firearms.[284] After the government declares martial law with the support of the United Nations and foreign troops, U.S. citizens’ guns will be confiscated, those who resist will be interned in concentration camps, and the country will be annexed into the New World Order socialist world government.[285] New World Order conspiracies are at the front of OK’s ideology. For example, in early 2021, Rhodes began promoting a similar conspiracy theory originated by Alex Jones. The theory posits that a Chinese-led New World Order, known as the Chicom Globalists, is plotting against the United States with the assistance of Joe Biden.[286] OK has also accused figures including Oprah Winfrey, Meryl Streep, and George Soros of being malignant “globalists.”[287]
According to the Oath Keepers, the group’s primary mission is to “prevent the destruction of American liberty by preventing a full-blown totalitarian dictatorship from coming to power.”[288] An article published by Rhodes in S.W.A.T. Magazine in 2008 laid out an apocalyptic vision of the future and foreshadowed OK’s ideology. Imagining a world in which Hillary Clinton (“Herr Hitlery”) were elected president, he predicted that she would declare a national emergency and use it as a pretext to seize firearms, ban the patriot/militia movement and condemn its members to military detention, and leverage the powers of the federal government to become a dictator.[289] This article reportedly catapulted Rhodes to greater recognition in the American far right. Rhodes parlayed this attention into speaking slots at right-wing conferences during the rise of the Tea Party backlash to Barack Obama’s presidency.[290]
OK sees its role as safeguarding Americans from an overzealous federal government that fails to respect basic American freedoms. Invoking language from the Declaration of Independence in its public statements, OK depicts itself as the guardian of Americans’ natural and unalienable rights. These “inalienable, natural rights,” Rhodes has stated, “are ours by virtue of ‘nature and nature’s God.’”[291] OK conceives of natural rights imbued independently from the government, rather than being granted by it. Rhodes has stated publicly that “rights come first, then government is created to protect them, not the other way around.”[292] OK considers the federal government a threat to the free exercise of natural rights guaranteed under OK’s interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. For example, OK has publicly stated that the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF) “cares not one whit about your or my unalienable rights or our Constitutional protection as American citizens.” The group has also accused ATF of being “hell-bent on tormenting” patriots.[293]
The name “Oath Keepers” refers to the oath taken by members of the military and law enforcement to “support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.”[294] OK prioritizes the recruitment of the military and law enforcement members, who, by virtue of their positions, take this oath. OK’s driving motivation is to uphold this oath in the face of supposed threats from the federal government and New World Order globalists. OK seeks to persuade members of the military and law enforcement to adopt OK’s interpretation of the Constitution, to the extent of disobeying orders given by commanders or other government officials.[295] As such, OK’s foundational text is called the “Declaration of Orders We Will Not Obey.” Rhodes articulated the Declaration during OK’s founding ceremony on April 19, 2009.[296] It consists of a list of ten hypothetical orders that, if given by the federal government, members of the group pledge to resist as unconstitutional. The orders generally correspond with tenets of the New World Order conspiracy theory popular with the patriot/militia movement and the fears raised by Rhodes in his 2008 magazine article.
All ten orders from Rhodes’s “Declaration of Orders We Will Not Obey” are reproduced below:
In addition to its roots in New World Order conspiracy theories, the Declaration also references early American history. The text opens with a quote from a speech George Washington gave to his troops: “The time is now near at hand which must probably determine, whether Americans are to be, Freemen, or Slaves.”[298] Rhodes then declares that “such a time is near at hand again,”[299] drawing a parallel between his group’s opposition to the U.S. federal government and the American colonists’ struggle against Great Britain. Of the ten “Orders We Will Not Obey,” seven make comparisons between the current political environment and colonial Britain’s abuses, such as seizure of arms, warrantless searches, and confiscation of property.[300]
Rhodes’ selection of a date and location for the founding ceremony of the Oath Keepers also makes allusions to early American history. He chose Lexington, Massachusetts, the site of the outbreak of the American Revolution, and April 19, 2009, the anniversary of the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Over the years since OK’s founding, Rhodes has not strayed from this messaging. In a call to resist the incoming Biden administration in January 2021, Rhodes urged OK members to “prepare to walk the same path as the Founding Fathers.”[301] The repeated historical references position the Oath Keepers as descendants of the 18th-century American patriots and the federal government as a modern-day colonial Britain. Given many U.S. citizens’ belief that the American Revolution was justified, OK’s purposeful association with this time period is a strategic means to gain greater public legitimacy.[302]
Around 2016-2017, OK’s ideology began to shift away from its obsession with the federal government and adopted a new focus on the anti-fascist movement known as antifa. With his election to the presidency, Donald Trump promised to fight the “deep state” loathed by the anti-government groups. After Trump’s arrival in the White House, a longtime enemy of the patriot/militia movement – the leader of the federal government – suddenly became an ally, according to right-wing extremism expert J.J. MacNab.[303] New World Order conspiracy theories were no longer as potent without a traditional president occupying the White House. As a result, the movement was thrust into confusion.[304] It soon had a new nemesis, however. Once antifa began targeting Trump and Trump supporters, patriot/militia extremist groups coalesced around raising antifa as their primary adversary.[305]
After Trump’s election, OK supported his administration.[306] With Trump in the White House, the group adopted a new focus on antifa, pivoting away from its traditional adversary, the U.S. government.[307] Maintaining a focus on conspiracy theories in the New World Order tradition, OK dropped its fear of the federal government collaborating with overseas enemies, instead emphasizing the dangers of the deep state, globalists, and leftist groups.[308] This new stance led Rhodes to adopt positions at odds with OK’s previous posture, such as a call for Trump to impose martial law after Biden’s presidential election victory.[309] As articulated above, martial law is the fourth order in the list of “Orders We Will Not Obey.” Bitterly opposed to the rise of the antifa movement and Biden’s presidency, OK regards the Biden administration as illegitimate and has advanced the idea that a civil war is imminent in the United States.[310]
Though OK is principally an anti-government extremist group, it has also published some nativist content, including screeds against undocumented immigrants and Islam.[311] For example, in 2016, OK officially endorsed Matt Bracken’s Islamophobic essay “Tet Take Two: Islam’s 2016 European Offensive,” which calls Islam “a ringworm infection.”[312] As a group, however, OK itself is not organized around white supremacist ideas. Rhodes has rejected white supremacism, saying in April 2017 that “I dislike the neo-Nazis more than Anti-fa, since they try to worm their way in and by doing so, they harm the cause of liberty far more than the radical leftists could ever do.”[313] In 2014, Rhodes said that “I’m a quarter Mexican, so it’s kind of hard for me to be a white supremacist” and noted that the Oath Keepers has Black members.[314] OK has prominently displayed images of members of color on its website, but photos from its events have suggested that most members are white.[315] Rhodes has also stated that OK condemns anti-Semitism.[316] When OK decided to patrol Ferguson, Missouri during unrest after the death of Michael Brown, Rhodes insisted that the group’s intervention was not racially motivated and pointed to the fact that OK protected businesses owned by residents of color.[317] However, in the name of “free speech,” OK and other patriot/militia organizations have also provided security to groups and individuals belonging to the alt-right movement that espouse white supremacist views.[318] Notably, OK also rejected a chapter leader’s suggestion to organize a march in support of Black people’s Second Amendment rights in 2015.[319]
In addition to avoiding association with white supremacism, leaders of the Oath Keepers reject characterizations of their group and its ideology as extreme or anti-government. In 2020, John D. Shirley, a former Texas chapter leader and an elected constable in Texas, wrote a blog post describing OK’s political stance as “nonpartisan” and the group’s mission as “almost exclusively dedicated to teaching first responders and soldiers to respect their oaths, know what the Constitution says and how that knowledge applies to their jobs.”[320]
The Oath Keepers actively engages in electoral politics on the national, state, and local levels. Members participate in demonstrations, support the campaigns of certain politicians, and run as candidates for public office. Though the Oath Keepers is officially nonpartisan, members most commonly support Republican politicians and run for office themselves as Republicans.[321] The national organization encouraged members’ campaigns. For example, in February 2020, OK leader Stewart Rhodes planned to hold a rally in support of Oath Keepers-aligned candidates for public office in Granbury, Texas.[322] The event was later canceled when the venue, a local golf club, declined to host the group.[323]
Presidential Elections
In 2016, OK mobilized in support of Donald Trump’s candidacy for the presidency. Though the national organization did not officially endorse his campaign, the group’s opposition to Hillary Clinton led many members to back Trump.[324] OK ultimately sent members to provide security to pro-Trump activists at rallies, and Rhodes himself was seen in the VIP section of a Trump rally wearing an Oath Keepers shirt.[325]
In both 2016 and 2020, the Oath Keepers pledged to protect elections from fraud. However, critics characterized these activities as election intimidation and misinformation. In October 2016, Rhodes called on members of his group to engage in “incognito intelligence gathering and crime spotting” at the polls, reiterating then-candidate Donald Trump’s allegations of election fraud.[326] Believing that Hillary Clinton would attempt to steal the election, Rhodes held webinars for Oath Keepers members on conducting poll surveillance and responding to election-related civil unrest.[327] The Oath Keepers adopted similar tactics during the 2020 election. In an October 2020 interview with well-known conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, Rhodes pledged that Oath Keepers would deploy undercover members, potentially with weapons, to protect voters from alleged intimidation by the political left.[328] However, in neither the 2016 nor 2020 elections was OK seen to have a major public presence at the polls.
After Biden’s victory in the 2020 presidential election, the Oath Keepers supported President Donald Trump’s claims of voter fraud. Despite filing dozens of lawsuits contesting the election results on the basis of fraud, Trump and his allies failed to make a compelling case in the courts. These legal challenges have been overwhelmingly rejected by U.S. courts, including the Supreme Court. [329] According to USA Today, of the sixty-two lawsuits filed “challenging the presidential election, 61 have failed,” with decisions coming from both Democratic-appointed and Republican-appointed judges.[330] A week after Biden was declared the president-elect, the Oath Keepers joined like-minded groups including the Proud Boys and thousands of Trump supporters for the “Million MAGA March,” a demonstration in Washington, D.C. in support of the president on November 14, 2020.[331] At the march, Oath Keepers leader Stewart Rhodes repeated unsubstantiated allegations of voter fraud in an interview with The Independent. Rhodes also declared that the Oath Keepers would not recognize Joe Biden as the legitimate president of the United States.[332]
On January 6, 2021, the Oath Keepers joined Trump supporters and other extremist organizations in storming the U.S. Capitol in order to prevent Congress from certifying Biden’s victory in the electoral college.[333] The riots began as a protest in support of President Trump but soon turned violent, ultimately leading to the death of five police officers and the wounding of 140 other officers from the Capitol Police and the Washington, D.C., Metropolitan Police.[334] It is unknown whether members of the Oath Keepers were responsible for these casualties. By November 2022, at least 25 people affiliated with OK had been charged for their involvement in the assault on the Capitol. Of the twenty-five defendants, eleven, including Rhodes, were charged with seditious conspiracy, with prosecutors alleging that they planned in advance to storm the Capitol and block congressional certification of Joe Biden’s election.[335] On November 29, 2022, Stewart Rhodes and Kelly Meggs were convicted of seditious conspiracy.[336]
U.S. Congress
Oath Keepers chapters participated in U.S. congressional elections, both as candidates and as campaign operatives. For example, Oath Keepers member Wendy Rogers ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 2018.[337] In November 2020, Rogers was elected to the Arizona State Senate.
In 2020, New Jersey Oath Keepers member Bill Hayden served as the campaign manager for Frank Pallotta, a Republican congressional candidate who ultimately lost to incumbent Josh Gottheimer.[338] Pallotta refused to denounce the Oath Keepers and welcomed the group’s support for his campaign. He called Oath Keepers members “good people” and rejected characterizations of the group as a domestic terrorist organization.[339] In 2016, Gottheimer’s predecessor, then-Rep. Scott Garrett, attended a campaign fundraiser organized by Edward Durfee, a local Republican activist and leader of the New Jersey Oath Keepers chapter. At the event, Garrett praised Durfee as an “unsung hero.”[340] After Durfee’s affiliation with the Oath Keepers became publicly known, Garrett distanced himself from Durfee; the congressman’s campaign manager said that Garrett was unaware that Durfee was involved with OK.[341] In early 2021, Durfee declared that he was running for a New Jersey state assembly seat with the support of a local chapter of the Republican Party.[342]
The Oath Keepers has also sought to cultivate ties with members of Congress. For example, in July 2017, Oath Keepers invited Congressman Clay Higgins (R-La.) to headline a rally in Washington, D.C.[343] Wearing a red shirt emblazoned with the words “We the People,” Rep. Higgins spoke for approximately fifteen minutes about overreach by the federal government.[344] The Oath Keepers maintains a page on its website dedicated to sharing the congressman’s public statements.[345] Higgins also has ties to the Three Percenters militant organization.[346] In Arizona, the leader of the Yavapai County Oath Keepers chapter claims that Congressman Paul Gosar (R-Ariz.) attended one of the group’s events.[347]
State Legislatures
Members of the Oath Keepers have sought election to state legislatures, most commonly in Western states. As of October 2023, several were serving in public office. In Idaho, Heather Scott, a Republican state representative since 2015, has publicly pledged allegiance to the Oath Keepers. She spoke at a June 2020 rally against COVID-19 public health measures at which the Oath Keepers provided security.[348] Chad Christensen – a Republican Idaho state representative who served from 2018-2022 – described himself as a member of the Oath Keepers in his official biography on the website of the Idaho legislature.[349]
In Arizona, Mark Finchem publicly identified himself as an Oath Keeper during his 2014 campaign for the Arizona House of Representatives. [350] He was successfully elected as a Republican in 2014. Before his election, Rep. Finchem spread conspiracy theories about the Obama administration and promoted Oath Keepers’ Community Preparedness Teams (CPT) initiative.[351] For more information on this program, see the Targets and Tactics section of this profile. The biography of his campaign’s Twitter account urged people to join the Oath Keepers.[352] In 2022, Finchem ran to be the Secretary of State of Arizona and won the Republican primary for the position. However, he lost to his Democratic opponent and ended his House term in January 2023.[353] Prior to the race, the newspaper Arizona Mirror reported that Finchem had received nearly $10,000 in donations from individuals with ties to OK.[354]
Also in Arizona, State Senator Wendy Rogers maintains public ties to the Oath Keepers. In November 2020, she won an Arizona State Senate seat as a Republican representing District 6 in central Arizona.[355] After a failed bid for Congress in 2018, Senator Rogers publicly affiliated with the Oath Keepers and boasted of her connections to the group in campaign literature.[356] A retired U.S. Air Force pilot and colonel, Sen. Rogers ran a campaign focused on protecting Arizona from the alleged threat of violence posed by the antifa movement and Hungarian-American billionaire and philanthropist George Soros. These supposed threats are common themes found in OK rhetoric utilized by the national leadership and lower-levels of the organization.[357]
David Eastman, a Republican congressman in the Alaska House of Representatives, was in Washington D.C. on January 6, 2021. He allegedly attended the protest that preceded the insurrection at the Capitol but maintains that he did not enter the building. Eastman was listed as a “lifetime member” of the Oath Keepers in a list from OK web servers and has allegedly contributed more than $1,000 to the group.[358] A local newspaper reported in January 2022 that the Alaska House did not take action to punish Eastman for his involvement with OK.[359]
In late July 2022, Randall Kowalke, one of Eastman’s constituents, filed a lawsuit against Eastman with the goal of disqualifying him from holding office and removing him from the November general election ballot due to his membership in OK.[360] Kowalke’s lawsuit hinged on a provision in the Alaskan Constitution known as the disloyalty clause, which states that no one who “advocates, or who aids or belongs to any party or organization or association which advocates, the overthrow by force or violence of the government of the United States or of the State shall be qualified to hold” public office.[361] In September 2022, Superior Court Judge Jack McKenna ruled that Eastman was eligible to remain on the ballot.[362] However, McKenna “ordered that state elections officials delay certifying the Nov. 8 election for Republican Rep. David Eastman’s seat pending further order by the court.”[363]
Eastman won re-election with 51.3% of the vote.[364] Eastman’s trial began on December 13, 2022, and concluded after seven days of hearings.[365] During the trial, Stewart Rhodes testified on behalf of Eastman.[366] On December 30, 2022, Judge McKenna ruled that Eastman’s membership in the Oath Keepers “does not violate the Alaska Constitution’s disloyalty clause because of First Amendment protections for free speech.”[367] McKenna’s ruling means that Eastman is allowed to continue serving in the Alaska Legislature.
Elected Local Law Enforcement Offices
Members of the Oath Keepers have also run for elected local law enforcement offices across the country, including sheriff positions. Many in the organization believe that the sheriff is the supreme law enforcement authority in the United States – above federal agents – because the position is directly elected.[368] Oath Keepers members have sought to become sheriffs in order to promote their interpretation of the Constitution and resist federal power.[369] For example, in 2010, the first major U.S. election year after the group’s founding, about a dozen members ran for sheriff, most in Western states including California, Colorado, and Montana.[370] Internal Oath Keepers chats leaked in November 2020 revealed systematic efforts to organize sheriffs in support of the group’s beliefs. Oath Keepers’ private forum included an “Outreach to County Sheriff Guide” with tips on recruiting sheriffs to the cause and propaganda materials to share with sheriffs.[371] The Oath Keepers has worked closely with the Constitutional Sheriffs and Peace Officers Association (CSPOA), a flagship organization of sheriffs aligned with the patriot/militia movement, in its appeals to sheriffs.[372] In 2016, the New York chapter of Oath Keepers presented David Clarke Jr – sheriff of Milwaukee County, Wisconsin and a vocal critic of the Black Lives Matter movement – with a “leadership award.”[373] The total number of OK-affiliated sheriffs is unknown.
John D. Shirley, an elected constable of Hood County, Texas, is a high-profile law enforcement official affiliated with the Oath Keepers. The constable role is similar to that of a sheriff and includes the power to serve warrants and subpoenas and make arrests. Shirley has been a member of OK for about as long as the group has been active and has served in OK leadership roles, including as Texas chapter president and as a member of the group’s national board of directors.[374] In late November 2020, he announced his decision to retire as an active member of the Oath Keepers.[375]
This section focuses on OK’s targets and tactics relating to the threat and use of violence. Other key Oath Keepers tactics include appeals to community support and involvement in politics. For a description of some of the tactics involved in the Oath Keepers’ public-facing strategy, see the Community Relations section of this profile. For more information on Oath Keepers’ participation in electoral politics, see the Political Activities section. For targets of recruitment, see the Resources section.
The Oath Keepers has not typically conducted attacks with human casualties. The group’s primary tactics include armed confrontations and security operations, which leverage the threat of violence to achieve political goals or express political messages. In security operations, OK militants deploy to certain locations with the goal of keeping communities safe from known or unknown adversaries. The choice of target and venue accords with the group’s political views.
Several of OK’s most well-known operations have targeted symbols of government power, particularly federal land use regulators, such as the Bureau of Land Management and the National Park Service. For example, in April 2015, OK militants traveled to Cliven Bundy’s ranch in Bunkerville, Nevada, to support other activists in an armed standoff with Bureau of Land Management (BLM) agents. The agents were attempting to confiscate Bundy’s cattle per a court order over Bundy’s unpaid grazing fees for use of federal land.[376] The next year, OK militants patrolled the Sugar Pine Mine in Oregon at the request of the mine owners to prevent BLM agents from coming to shut down unauthorized mining activity.[377] In 2016, some members of the Oath Keepers participated in an occupation of Malheur Wildlife Refuge in Oregon in protest of the arson conviction of two men for burning brush on federal land. The OK national leadership condemned the occupation and organized an armed buffer force to keep the peace between the occupiers and the authorities.[378]
Beyond land use disputes with the federal government, other targets of OK operations include Black Lives Matter protesters and the anti-fascist (antifa) movement. In 2014 and 2015, OK militants deployed to Ferguson, Missouri, to stand armed guard and counter the unrest associated with demonstrations against police brutality.[379] In the summer of 2020, OK sent militants to serve as security for businesses in Louisville, Kentucky during protests advocating justice for Breonna Taylor, a Black paramedic shot by police in her apartment.[380] In January 2017, Rhodes announced “Operation Defend J20” to provide security for President Donald Trump’s inauguration. In coordination with the Three Percenters and Bikers for Trump, OK sought to protect the event from political enemies on the left, such as antifa groups, and the Islamic State (IS).[381] OK also organized members to provide security at Trump campaign rallies in Minneapolis, Minnesota and Dallas, Texas in October 2019.[382] Along with other militia organizations, OK has provided security to groups belonging to the alt-right movement, ostensibly to protect free speech from antifa protesters.[383]
OK has also been known to engage in organizing armed patrols across the United States. Framed as a public safety asset, OK’s Community Preparedness Teams, or CPT, program (initially “Civilization Preservation Teams”) acts as an armed neighborhood watch. Members pledge to provide security and emergency services to local communities after natural disasters, terrorist attacks, or other events.[384] CPTs have conducted paramilitary training on topics including weapons skills, patrolling techniques, and emergency relief.[385] OK has described CPTs as a step towards establishing a militia, hearkening back to the tradition of American colonial militias and alluding to the “well-regulated militia” mentioned in the Second Amendment. The CPTs aim to provide local security so that Americans will not need to rely on the U.S. government for their defense.[386] It is unknown how many CPTs have been established, and the last time there was evidence that the CPT program was active was 2016.[387] In 2018, OK announced the creation of an initiative similar to CPT, known as “Spartan Training Groups.”[388]
As of October 2023, the Oath Keepers’ most recent and highest profile operation was the January 6, 2021, insurrection at the U.S. Capitol. OK’s participation in the insurrection does not fit the pattern of tactics used by the group in the past. Rather than providing security or participating in standoffs, OK militants actively participated in storming the Capitol. OK is believed to have played a major role. Groups of OK militants in tactical gear were seen roaming the Capitol complex and breaching security checkpoints.[389] Judging from a recording of an Oath Keeper leading the group’s charge on the Capitol, there may have been approximately thirty to forty members of the group there.[390] In an indictment filed on February 19, 2021, prosecutors argued that nine individuals affiliated with the Oath Keepers conspired to storm the Capitol and prevent electoral votes from being counted.[391] It remains to be seen whether OK will continue to utilize more offensive and violent tactics or revert to its previous tactics.
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
The Oath Keepers does not have an extensive history of violence resulting in human casualties. This does not mean that the group is nonviolent, however. OK has often carried out operations that implicitly or explicitly threaten violence, such as participation in armed standoffs with federal agents and protesters. Most notably, the group participated in the storming of the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021. OK is also known for providing armed security, such as during unrest associated with protests against police brutality. Details on these operations are not included here but can be found in the Narrative Summary and the Targets and Tactics sections.
April 2014: Members of the Oath Keepers, including OK leader Stewart Rhodes, joined activists from around the United States in an armed standoff with the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) agents in Bunkerville, Nevada, in support of rancher Cliven Bundy. The militants aimed to prevent BLM from confiscating Bundy’s cattle due to his refusal to pay grazing fees. This was OK’s first major operation (no casualties).[392]
April 2015: After being cited by U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) for unauthorized mining activity at the Sugar Pine Mine, Rich Barclay and George Backes requested security support from the Oath Keepers. Members from around the country came for a weekslong armed patrol of the site to defy BLM (no casualties).[393]
January 2016 - February 2016: Unsanctioned by the Oath Keepers national leadership, some members (exact number unknown) participated in the occupation of Malheur Wildlife Refuge in Oregon to protest the conviction of two men for arson for burning brush on federal land. The OK national leadership approved the establishment of an armed patrol to serve as a buffer between the occupiers and federal agents (1 killed, unknown wounded).[394]
January 6, 2021: The Oath Keepers participated in the storming of the U.S. Capitol along with members of other like-minded organizations, including the Three Percenters, Proud Boys, adherents of the QAnon conspiracy theory, and other supporters of then-U.S. President Donald Trump in an attempt to halt the certification of Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 presidential election. The assault led to the deaths of three police officers and four protesters;140 police officers were injured, while the number of rioters injured is unknown (7 killed, at least 140 wounded).[395]
There are no designations or listings for this group.
The Oath Keepers actively appeals to the public for support and has taken steps to portray itself as a civil society organization with a positive community impact. For example, when the National Parks Service closed parks and memorials due to a federal government shutdown in October 2013, OK filmed Stewart Rhodes escorting a World War II veteran into the closed and barricaded World War II Memorial, highlighting the group’s support of the military.[396] In Oregon, the Josephine County Oath Keepers engaged in public service activities, including painting local houses, building a new playground, and assembling wheelchair ramps for neighbors in need.[397] A flagship OK initiative, Community Preparedness Teams (CPTs), encouraged OK members to join armed neighborhood watch groups to provide security and emergency services to local communities in response to public safety threats.[398] In 2017, OK organized to provide disaster relief to areas affected by hurricanes in Texas, Florida, and Puerto Rico.[399] OK has also sponsored NASCAR driver Jeffrey Earnhardt and displayed the OK logo on his car, purchased advertisements on billboards in the Washington, D.C. transit system and near military bases around the country, and sent care packages with OK materials to servicemembers.[400]
In addition to appeals to the general public, the Oath Keepers prioritizes positive relations with police departments in areas where OK chapters are active across the United States. For example, in an internal conference call on October 29, 2021, OK leaders shared best practices for building rapport with local police. During the call, Jessica Watkins, a leader of an OK affiliate in Ohio, shared an example of her militia’s efforts to establish a good relationship with law enforcement in her region.[401]
Recruitment Strategy
The Oath Keepers targets current and former military and law enforcement personnel for recruitment. According to the group’s bylaws, OK has two tiers of members: “full members” and “associate members.” Only retired and active-duty military personnel and first responders are entitled to full membership; others must join as associate members. Other than the difference in title, however, both full and associate members seem to enjoy the same privileges.[402]
According to a leaked membership database containing information on individuals who joined OK from 2009 through 2015, about two-thirds of the organization’s members came from a military or law enforcement background, and about ten percent of members were active-duty.[403] The Project On Government Oversight (POGO) reviewed the database and found over 300 OK members who described themselves as “current or former employees of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).” DHS agencies include the Border Patrol, Coast Guard, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, and the Secret Service.[404] A more recent leak emerged in September 2021 when the non-profit journalist collective Distributed Denial of Secrets (DDoSecrets) published an Oath Keepers membership list that had more than 38,000 names.[405] Within that list, the Anti-Defamation League identified hundreds of elected officials, law enforcement officers, and members of the military.[406]
Additionally, of nine suspected Oath Keepers charged with conspiracy for their alleged involvement in the January 6, 2021, storming of the U.S. Capitol, four were military veterans.[407] This included Thomas E. Caldwell, a retired Navy lieutenant commander.[408] The nine also included two members of an OK affiliate known as the Ohio State Regular Militia: Jessica Watkins, an Army veteran who deployed to Afghanistan,[409] and Donovan Crowl, a former Marine.[410] According to a confidential source within the Oath Keepers interviewed by CNN, the group has members working in federal law enforcement.[411] Their names are not included in the organization’s official membership list in order to give them plausible deniability.[412]
Allies
The Oath Keepers has generally avoided developing close ties or alliances with other militant groups. For example, despite increased fundraising success due to the 2014 Bundy Ranch armed standoff, OK did not follow through on promises to financially support like-minded groups that also participated in the confrontation with federal agents. In response to the lack of support, local groups in Nevada barred OK from returning to the area.[413]
Three Percenters
The Three Percenters (III%ers) are an ideological ally of the Oath Keepers. An anti-government extremist group founded in 2008, the III%ers are one of the largest umbrella groups in the militia movement and coalesce around the factually unsupported notion that only three percent of the population fought against the British in the American Revolution.[414] Unlike OK, the III%ers are not organized into a hierarchical organization. Its loosely connected subgroups do not follow a single national leadership.[415] III%ers share aspects of OK’s worldview, such as favorable self-comparison with the American Revolution and fear of a tyrannical federal government.[416]
OK has been linked to the III%ers since Rhodes launched the group. Three Percenters founder Mike Vanderboegh attended OK’s founding ceremony in Lexington, Massachusetts on April 19, 2009.[417] Rhodes has spoken publicly in support of the III%ers over the years and as early as September 2009, OK members were seen carrying a Three Percenters flag at an Oath Keepers demonstration in Washington, D.C.[418] Over the years, OK and the III%ers have participated alongside each other in several major operations. In April 2014, both groups came to the aid of rancher Cliven Bundy in his armed confrontation with the federal government.[419] The next year, a III%er group, Idaho Three Percent, joined OK in its standoff at the Sugar Pine Mine.[420] OK and the III%ers also banded together to organize armed patrols outside military recruiting centers around the United States after a shooting at such a center in Chattanooga, Tennessee in July 2015.[421]
In January 2017, OK coordinated with the III%ers and a group called Bikers for Trump in organizing an operation to provide security for President Trump’s inauguration in anticipation of threats from antifa and the Islamic State (IS).[422] OK and the III%ers’ collaborative relationship continued during the Trump presidency. For example, in June 2017, OK and the III%ers both participated in efforts to provide security for anti-Muslim rallies organized by ACT for America and participated in a right-wing free speech rally in the face of a heavy antifa presence in Portland.[423] Along with OK, the Three Percenters played a major role in the storming of the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021.[424] According to federal prosecutors, a Virginia man affiliated with the Oath Keepers was in contact with the III%ers as he organized OK members to travel to Washington, D.C. to protest Joe Biden’s election victory.[425] It is unclear to what extent the Oath Keepers collaborated with the Three Percenters in planning the Capitol insurrection. Evidence reviewed by NBC News shows extensive communication between the Oath Keepers and Derek Kinnison, a self-identified member of the Three Percenters, in the days leading up to the Capitol riot.[426]
Affiliates
Ohio State Regular Militia
The Ohio State Regular Militia (OSRM) was an affiliate of the Oath Keepers. The FBI has identified this group as “a dues-paying” subset of OK. Its founder and leader, Jessica Watkins, was a member of the Oath Keepers.[427] Leaked audio showed Watkins participating in an October 2020 conference call of OK chapter leaders, which suggests that the OSRM may coordinate with the national Oath Keepers organization.[428]
According to Watkins, she founded the group in early 2020 “to protect businesses as the election season got underway.”[429] She claimed that the OSRM had six members at its height and has patrolled twelve protests in total.[430] Watkins is an Army veteran formerly deployed to Afghanistan and has previously worked as a firefighter and EMT.[431] Oath Keepers founder Stewart Rhodes has credited Watkins with playing a major role in OK’s demonstrations against protestors for police reform in Louisville in the summer of 2020.[432]
Watkins allegedly led three members of her militia in traveling from Ohio to Washington, D.C. in order to join the riots at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021.[433] Footage of the storming of the Capitol shows Watkins making her way through the crowd in a line with other Oath Keepers.[434] She was later arrested and charged with conspiracy, among other crimes.[435] In a bid to be released from jail pending trial, Watkins announced in late February 2021 that she was disbanding OSRM.[436] On November 29, 2022, Watkins was convicted on several felony charges, including obstruction of Congress, civil disorder, and conspiracy to prevent an officer from discharging their duties.[437] Months later, on May 26, 2023, Watkins was sentenced to eight and a half years in prison.[438]
Splinter Groups
Liberty Watch of Josephine County
The Liberty Watch of Josephine County is an Oath Keepers splinter group that previously operated as the OK chapter for Josephine County, Oregon. The group has also gone by the name Citizen Patriots of Josephine County.[439] Joseph Rice, a former National Guardsman and Department of Defense contractor, founded the Josephine County Oath Keepers in 2012.[440] The group quickly became a fixture of the community by participating in public service, sponsoring a float in a local parade, and recruiting local elected officials for membership.[441] In April 2015, the chapter captured national attention when it led militants and anti-government activists from across the United States in an armed patrol of Oregon’s Sugar Pine Mine in defiance of Bureau of Land Management regulations.[442] In August 2016, Rice’s chapter split from the national Oath Keepers and reorganized as the Citizen Patriots of Josephine County.[443] By 2017, the group appeared to go by the name Liberty Watch of Josephine County.[444] Rice indicated that Rhodes’s leadership was the primary reason for leaving the national OK organization. In an interview with the Southern Poverty Law Center, Rice said that he had lost trust in the national organization’s vision for the future of OK and argued that Rhodes was more interested in self-promotion than the good of the organization.[445]
North Carolina Oath Keepers
In early February 2021, the North Carolina chapter of the Oath Keepers split from the national organization. Doug Smith, the leader of the chapter, announced that the North Carolina Oath Keepers had voted unanimously to break away; he cited OK’s involvement in the storming of the U.S. Capitol on January 6 as the catalyst for the decision.[446] Though the North Carolina Oath Keepers had attended President Trump’s rally on January 6, Smith said that the chapter did not participate in the Capitol riot.[447] Calling the insurrection “an ugly stain on our nation’s history,” Smith said that his group would return to its roots of supporting local law enforcement.[448] According to Smith, the North Carolina Oath Keepers had begun distancing itself from national leadership as early as November 2020 due to dissatisfaction with OK’s response to the results of the 2020 presidential election.[449]
Yavapai County Preparedness Team
After the January 6 attack, Jim Arroyo, the Vice President of the Arizona OK chapter, announced that his chapter would split from the central OK organization.[450] In correspondence with Vice News, Arroyo reported that his OK chapter had been operating largely autonomously since 2018 after Rhodes broke ties with the chapter when Arroyo refused to join OK operations at the U.S.-Mexico border.[451] Arroyo renamed the Arizona OK chapter as the Yavapai County Preparedness Team (YCPT) in 2018 and registered it as a nonprofit organization. In an article published by local news outlet The Daily Courier and posted on the YCPT’s website, Arroyo asserted that the YCPT was not connected to the January 6 riot and claimed that he advised members to “stay away from it.” Arroyo estimated that 100-400 people attended the group’s public meetings, and more than 1,000 individuals were on the YCPT email list.[452]
While Arroyo claims to have officially split from OK, his group still uses OK branding. As of October 2023, the group’s website uses the OK logo and flag.[453] At an August 2022 meeting posed on YouTube, Arroyo reportedly told members in attendance wearing OK gear: “Your shirts and hats are what tell the world you’re not ashamed to be an Oath Keeper, or afraid of the government just because of that crap that happened on January the 6th, which was completely staged. It was a setup.” [454] YCPT, along with its “sister organization” the Lions of Liberty, organized efforts to monitor ballot drop boxes for fraudulent activities during the 2022 midterm election. Photos of a September 2022 meeting on the topic show the YCPT banner hanging alongside an Oath Keepers banner for “Yavapai County, Arizona Chapter.”[455] A lawsuit was filed in October 2022 by the League of Women Voters of Arizona that alleged the YCPT and the Lions of Liberty’s efforts to surveil ballot drop boxes amounted to voter intimidation.[456] YCPT and Lions of Liberty ultimately agreed to cease their monitoring operations and were dismissed from the case.[457]
Unknown
Proud Boys
OK’s relationship with the Proud Boys (PB), an all-male Western chauvinist organization, is ambiguous. At times, the two groups have taken the same side in street demonstrations, but Rhodes has shied away from publicly associating with the Proud Boys. For example, in April 2017, OK, PB, and the Three Percenters (III%ers) all provided security for protests held by ACT for America, the largest U.S. anti-Muslim organization, in twenty-eight cities across the country.[458] In August of that year, Rhodes announced publicly that OK would not participate in events alongside “known white nationalists,” citing Kyle Chapman, leader of the PB affiliate Fraternal Order of Alt-Knights, as an example.[459]
More recently, the Oath Keepers and Proud Boys both participated in the storming of the Capitol on January 6, 2021. In a March 2021 court filing, federal prosecutors alleged that members of the two organizations were in contact in the weeks before January 6 and appear to have coordinated to some degree.[460] In February 2022, it was reported that the FBI was investigating a meeting between Stewart Rhodes, Proud Boys leader Enrique Tarrio, and OK general counsel Kellye SoRelle, in a Washington, D.C. parking garage on January 5, 2021.[461] In Facebook messages, Kelly Meggs, the leader of the Florida chapter of Oath Keepers, called the Proud Boys a “force multiplier” and said that he had “organized an alliance” with the Proud Boys and the Florida III%ers chapter.[462] A documentary filmmaker recorded portions of the meeting. In one clip, an unidentified attendee reportedly can be heard saying: “It’s inevitable. It’s going to happen. We just have to do it strong, fast, together.”[463]
Both Rhodes and Tarrio deny close ties between the Oath Keepers and Proud Boys.[464] In a deposition conducted by the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the U.S. Capitol, Tarrio described a strained relationship with the Oath Keepers after Rhodes had promised to provide transportation to attendees of Tarrio’s rally in Portland in 2019 but backed out at the last minute. Tarrio stated in his testimony: “after that, I called that whole Oath Keepers group the ‘Oath Breakers.’” Tarrio claimed that the January 5 parking garage meeting was not a preplanned meetup with Rhodes: “I didn't go to meet Rhodes. He just happened to be there.”[465]
Rhodes, Tarrio, and several members of the Oath Keepers and Proud Boys were charged and convicted of seditious conspiracy for their efforts to organize and execute the Capitol riot.[466]
There are no identifiable external influences for this group.
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[2] “Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keepers.
[3] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[4] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elmer....
[5] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 143.
[6] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 142.
[7] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 142.
[8] “Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keepers
[9] “Racism & Identity in the Patriot Movement.” Rural Organizing Project. Accessed January 13, 2023. https://rop.org/uia/section-i/the-patriot-movement-historically-national...
[10] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elmer...
[11] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-p...
[12] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-p...
[13] Kennedy, Bud. “Fort Worth-area law officers’ emails show past ties to paranoid Oath Keepers militia.” Fort Worth Star-Telegram. January 25, 2021. https://www.star-telegram.com/news/politics-government/article248562800.....
[14] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elmer....
[15] Gouras, Matt. “In Lincoln County and across the West: Oath Keepers want sheriff back as top cop.” Missoulian. June 1, 2010. https://missoulian.com/news/local/in-lincoln-county-and-across-the-west-....
[16] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias....
[17] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-p....
[18] “Tea Party Twitter Arrest: Daniel Hayden Threatened Mass Murder, Cop Killing.” Huffington Post. May 25, 2011. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/tea-party-twitter-arrest_n_191527.
[19] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elmer...
[20] Poulsen, Kevin. “Oklahoma Man Arrested for Twittering Tea Party Death Threats.” Wired. April 24, 2009. https://www.wired.com/2009/04/twitterraid/.
[21] “Oklahoma City Man Receives Eight-Month Sentence for Twitter Threat.” FBI. February 2, 2010. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/oklahomacity/press-releases/2010/ok020....
[22] Gunter, Booth. “Oath Keeper Convicted on Weapons Charge, Attempted ‘Citizen’s Arrest.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. October 25, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2011/10/25/oath-keeper-convicted-wea...‘citizen’s-arrest’.
[23] Gunter, Booth. “Oath Keeper Convicted on Weapons Charge, Attempted ‘Citizen’s Arrest.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. October 25, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2011/10/25/oath-keeper-convicted-wea...‘citizen’s-arrest’.
[24] “Militia Extremist Sentenced to Four Years in Prison for Take Over Plot.” FBI. May 15, 2012. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/knoxville/press-releases/2012/militia-....
[25] Sparling, Hannah K. and Kevin Grasha. “Ohio militias: Who are the Oath Keepers, Ohio State Regular Militia?” The Cincinnati Enquirer. January 22, 2021. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news
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[26] Sparling, Hannah K. and Kevin Grasha. “Ohio militias: Who are the Oath Keepers, Ohio State Regular Militia?” The Cincinnati Enquirer. January 22, 2021. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news
/2021/01/21/ohio-militias-who-oath-keepers-ohio-state-regular-militia/4231869001/.
[27] Balko, Randy. “An Interview With Stewart Rhodes.” Reason. February 7, 2011. https://reason.com/2011/02/07/an-interview-with-stewart-rhod/?print=.
[28] Lenz, Ryan. “Are the Oath Keepers Fighting ‘Martial Law’?” Southern Poverty Law Center. November 15, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2011/are-oat...‘martial-law’.
[29] “The Oath Keepers.” Anti-Defamation League. 2021. https://www.adl.org/Backgrounders/OathKeepers. ; Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 44.
[30] “The Oath Keepers.” Anti-Defamation League. 2021. https://www.adl.org/Backgrounders/OathKeepers.
[31] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America's Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-on....
[32] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.
[33] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America's Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-on....
[34] Mencimer, Stephanie. “He Was a Board Member of the Oath Keepers. Now He’s Holding State-Approved Trainings for Law Enforcement in Texas.” Mother Jones. October 29, 2021. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2021/10/oath-keepers-texas-richard-....
[35] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 46.
[36] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.
[37] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.
[38] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America’s Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-on.... ; Fuller, Jaime. “The long fight between the Bundys and the federal government, from 1989 to today.” The Washington Post. January 4, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2014/04/15/everything-you....
[39] Goldwasser, Rachel. “Well Before The Jan. 6 Insurrection, Oath Keepers Trafficked in Violence and Conspiracy Theories.” Southern Poverty Law Center. February 12, 2021. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2021/02/12/well-jan-6-insurrection-o....
[40] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[41] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[42] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[43] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[44] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[45] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias....
[46] Davey, Monica and Julie Bosman. “Protests Flare After Ferguson Police Officer Is Not Indicted.” The New York Times. November 24, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/25/us/ferguson-darren-wilson-shooting-mi....
[47] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonpr....
[48] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonpr....
[49] Hay, Mark. “The Leader of Oath Keepers Says the Right-Wing Group Is in Ferguson to ‘Protect the Weak.’” VICE News. December 1, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/av48bg/leader-of-oath-keepers-says-the-g....
[50] Fowler, Sarah. “Ferguson unrest: Who are the mysterious ‘Oath Keepers’?” BBC News. August 12, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-33867245.
[51] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonpr....
[52] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonpr....
[53] Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.
[54] Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.
[55] Pogue, James. “The Oath Keepers Are Ready for War with the Federal Government.” VICE News. September 14, 2015. https://www.vice.com/en/article/exq8en/miner-threat-0000747-v22n9. ; Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.
[56] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 49-50.
[57] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 49-50.
[58] Fausset, Richard, Alan Blinder, and Michael S. Schmidt. “Gunman Kills 4 Marines at Military Site in Chattanooga.” The New York Times. July 16, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/us/chattanooga-tennessee-shooting.html. ; Fausset, Richard, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Matt Apuzzo. “Slain Troops in Chattanooga Saved Lives Before Giving Their Own.” The New York Times. July 22, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/23/us/chattanooga-tennessee-shooting-inv....
[59] Calamur, Krishnadev and Eyder Peralta. “Gunman's Motivation Unclear After Shootings At Tennessee Military Sites.” NPR. July 16, 2015. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/16/423489864/shooting-re....
[60] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 51.
[61] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 51.
[62] Neuman, Scott. “Army Warns Of 'Armed Citizens' Trying To Protect Recruiting Stations.” NPR. July 23, 2015. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/23/425661376/army-warns-....
[63] Larimer, Sarah and Abby Phillip. “Who are the Oath Keepers, and why has the armed group returned to Ferguson?” The Washington Post. August 11, 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/08/11/who-are-th....
[64] Laughland, Oliver, Jon Swaine, and Joanna Walters. “White militiamen roam Ferguson with rifles while black men wrongly arrested.” The Guardian. August 12, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/aug/11/oath-keepers-ferguson-au....
[65] Feuer, Alan. “The Oath Keeper Who Wants to Arm Black Lives Matter.” Rolling Stone. January 3, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-oath-keeper-who-wa....
[66] Feuer, Alan. “The Oath Keeper Who Wants to Arm Black Lives Matter.” Rolling Stone. January 3, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-oath-keeper-who-wa....
[67] Walker, Jesse. “Oath Keeper Who Called for #BlackOpenCarry March in Ferguson Leaves the Group, Plans His Own March; Oath Keepers Say the Original March Will Proceed.” Reason. August 27, 2015. https://reason.com/2015/08/27/oath-keeper-who-called-for-blackopencarr/.
[68] Feuer, Alan. “The Oath Keeper Who Wants to Arm Black Lives Matter.” Rolling Stone. January 3, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-oath-keeper-who-wa....
[69] Higdon, James and Sandhya Somashekhar. “Kentucky clerk ordered to jail for refusing to issue gay marriage license.” The Washington Post. September 3, 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/defiant-kentucky-clerk-could-be-....
[70] Higdon, James and Sandhya Somashekhar. “Kentucky clerk ordered to jail for refusing to issue gay marriage license.” The Washington Post. September 3, 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/defiant-kentucky-clerk-could-be-.... ; Hanna, Jason, Ed Payne, and Catherine E. Shoichet. “Kim Davis released, but judge bars her from withholding marriage licenses.” CNN. September 8, 2015. https://www.cnn.com/2015/09/08/politics/kim-davis-same-sex-marriage-kent....
[71] Neiwert, David. “Oath Keepers Head to Kentucky to Repeat Bundy Ranch Tactics in Kim Davis Dispute.” Southern Poverty Law Center. September 10, 2015. https://www.splcenter.org
/hatewatch/2015/09/10/oath-keepers-head-kentucky-repeat-bundy-ranch-tactics-kim-davis-dispute.
[72] Neiwert, David. “Oath Keepers Head to Kentucky to Repeat Bundy Ranch Tactics in Kim Davis Dispute.” Southern Poverty Law Center. September 10, 2015. https://www.splcenter.org
/hatewatch/2015/09/10/oath-keepers-head-kentucky-repeat-bundy-ranch-tactics-kim-davis-dispute.
[73] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 54.
[74] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.
[75] Zaitz, Les. “Oregon ranchers' fight with feds sparks militias’ interest.” The Oregonian. January 9, 2019. https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2015/12/ranchers_fight.... ; Peacher, Amanda. “There's Another Armed Group In Burns And It's Not The Bundys.” OPB. January 10, 2016. https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news....
[76] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.
[77] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.
[78] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.
[79] Bernstein, Maxine. “Oregon refuge occupier Jon Ritzheimer: ‘I am extremely sorry for this entire mess.’” The Oregonian. January 9, 2019. https://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2017/11/oregon_refuge_occupie....
[80] Devlin, Vince. “Oath Keepers founder says members should pick different fight than Oregon situation.” Missoulian. February 18, 2021. https://missoulian.com/news/local/oath-keepers-founder-says-members-shou....
[81] Peacher, Amanda. “There's Another Armed Group In Burns And It's Not The Bundys.” OPB. January 10, 2016. https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-news....
[82] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 57.
[83] “Oregon standoff timeline: 41 days of the Malheur refuge occupation and the aftermath.” The Oregonian. February 14, 2017. https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2017/02/oregon_standoff_timeline_41_....
[84] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias....
[85] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 58.
[86] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oath....
[87] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militias....
[88] Sullivan, Kevin. “Militia group calls on members to patrol polls on Election Day.” The Washington Post. October 27, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2016/10/27/militia-gr....
[89] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 58.
[90] Sunshine, Spencer. “The Oath Keepers in Oregon.” Political Research Associates. October 3, 2016. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2016/10/03/the-oath-keepers-in-oregon.
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/stewart-rhodes-oath-keepers-capitol-riot.html.
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/stewart-rhodes-oath-keepers-capitol-riot.html.
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