Formed: 2009

Disbanded: Group is active.

First Attack: April 2014: Members of the Oath Keepers, including OK leader Stewart Rhodes, joined anti-government activists from around the United States in an armed standoff with U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) agents in Bunkerville, Nevada, in support of rancher Cliven Bundy. The militants aimed to prevent BLM from confiscating Bundy’s cattle due to his refusal to pay grazing fees. This was OK’s first major operation (no casualties).

Last Attack: January 6, 2021: TheOath Keepers participated in storming the U.S. Capitol along with the Three Percenters, Proud Boys, adherents of the QAnon conspiracy theory, and other supporters of then-U.S. President Donald Trump in an attempt to halt the certification of Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 presidential election. According to a bipartisan U.S. Senate report, the Capitol assault led to the deaths of three police officers and four protesters. Importantly, this death toll does not include the two Washington Metropolitan Police Department officers who responded to the Capitol riot and who died by suicide in July 2021, a month after the Senate report was released. 140 police officers were injured, while the number of rioters injured is unknown (7 killed, at least 140 wounded).  

Executive Summary

Founded in 2009, the Oath Keepers (OK) is one of the largest and most prominent organizations of the militia/patriot movement with chapters across the United States. The group’s name refers to the oath to “defend the Constitution against all enemies, foreign and domestic,” sworn by members of the U.S. military and police force. With a focus on recruiting former military and law enforcement personnel, the group seeks to protect Americans from what it perceives to be an encroachment of the federal government on citizens’ rights. The group is known for participating in armed standoffs with federal agents, armed intimidation of protestors, and individual criminal acts. OK members draw heavily on historical memory of the American Revolution by portraying themselves as the heirs of the Founding Fathers. The OK attend events with other organizations that endorse anti-government and white supremacist ideologies, though OK founder, Stuart Rhodes, called the group “not racists of any kind.”[1] In 2016, OK aligned itself with the administration of President Donald Trump and in opposition to the anti-fascist (antifa) movement. OK is politically active, and several members of the organization were elected to public office on the state and local levels. The group played a major role in the storming of the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021, to prevent the certification of the 2020 U.S. presidential election. 

Group Narrative

2009-2014: Early Beginnings

Elmer Stewart Rhodes (known commonly as Stewart Rhodes) founded the Oath Keepers (OK) in early 2009. Rhodes is a U.S. Army veteran and Yale Law School graduate. The group grew from Rhodes’ concerns about alleged federal government violations of the rights of American citizens. An article Rhodes published in April 2008 in S.W.A.T. magazine titled “Enemy at the Gates” highlights his fearful view of the government. Imagining a world in which Hillary Clinton were elected president of the United States, he predicted that “Herr Hitlery” would declare a national emergency and use it as a pretext to seize firearms, condemn American patriots to military detention, and leverage the powers of the federal government to become a dictator.[2]  Rhodes parlayed the attention he received into speaking slots at conferences during the rise of the Tea Party backlash to Barack Obama’s presidency.[3] About a year later, he founded his own group with the goal of preventing his apocalyptic vision from becoming reality.

On April 19, 2009, Rhodes held a rally in Lexington, Massachusetts to announce the founding of the organization and proclaim the “Declaration of Orders We Will Not Obey,” a list of ten supposed edicts expected to be given by a tyrannical federal government.[4] The orders invoke conspiracy theories such as detention camps to intern U.S. citizens, the stationing of foreign troops on U.S. soil, and mass confiscation of firearms.[5] The Oath Keepers was founded on the belief that the federal government could – and would, given the right circumstances – engage in such oppression. 

Rhodes opens the declaration with a quote from a speech George Washington gave to his troops: “The time is now near at hand which must probably determine, whether Americans are to be Freemen, or Slaves.”[6] He then states that “such a time is near at hand again,” drawing an urgent parallel between his group’s opposition to the U.S. federal government and the American colonists’ struggle against Great Britain.[7] Members of OK consider the federal government to be a tyrannical threat to Americans’ rights and seek to safeguard the group’s perception of the Constitution. The name “Oath Keepers” refers to the oath taken by members of the military and law enforcement to “support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic.”[8]

The date and location of OK’s first demonstration are significant. Along with the Battle of Concord, the Battle of Lexington was the first clash of the American Revolution and occurred on April 19, 1775, exactly 234 years before the public launch of the Oath Keepers. For more information on OK’s ideology and its self-association with the American Revolution, please see the Ideology and Goals section of this profile. OK is a pre-eminent organization of the anti-government patriot/militia movement, a type of extremism that considers the federal government to be the greatest threat to American liberty. Adherents to this ideology fear that the U.S. government collaborates with global elites, often termed the New World Order, to erode U.S. citizens’ freedoms. Though some individual members adhere to racist beliefs, OK, along with other anti-government patriot/militia groups are not generally organized around principles of white supremacism.[9]

Rhodes spent the first year of OK’s existence focused on recruitment. On July 4, 2009, early Oath Keepers members fanned out to thirty Tea Party rallies across the United States to encourage attendees to take the group’s oath.[10] In October, OK held its first national conference, in Las Vegas, which approximately 100 people attended.[11] OK’s recruitment efforts particularly targeted current members of the U.S. military and law enforcement. In fall 2009, Rhodes organized a campaign to assemble care packages with an Oath Keepers patch and DVD to send to active-duty military personnel between Veterans Day (November 11) and Bill of Rights Day (December 15).[12] Also in 2009, a Texas constable (an elected position similar to that of a sheriff), sent emails urging local police officers in the Fort Worth area to join.[13] By 2010, Rhodes claimed that the group boasted members in every U.S. state.[14] That year, about a dozen OK members ran for sheriff, most in Western states including California, Colorado, and Montana, beginning a years-long pattern of OK members running for public office.[15] For more information on  the Oath Keepers and electoral politics in the United States, see the Political Activities section of this profile.

OK’s ideological alignment with the Three Percenters (III%ers), a loosely organized group active in the U.S. patriot/militia movement, also began around this time. The founder of the III%ers, Mike Vanderboegh, attended Rhodes’s April 19, 2009, ceremony in Lexington.[16] Additionally, at least two members of OK were seen carrying III%ers flags at an October 2009 demonstration against the Obama administration in Washington, D.C.[17] OK’s relationship with the Three Percenters is significant. The two groups have coordinated in operations including standoffs with federal agents and armed patrols at anti-Muslim protests. OK and the III%ers both played a major role in the storming of the U.S. Capitol by a pro-Trump mob on January 6, 2021.

Within a year of the group’s founding, members of OK voiced an intent to use violence against the U.S. government. In April 2009, Daniel Knight Hayden, a 52-year-old man living in Oklahoma, posted a series of tweets threatening to kill police officers at the Oklahoma State Capitol during a Tax Day protest in order to start a war against the U.S. government.[18] Hayden self-identified as a member of the Oath Keepers.[19] According to Wired.com, Hayden’s case was the first criminal prosecution that resulted from posts on Twitter.[20] He was sentenced to eight months in prison in February 2010.[21] In April 2010, Darren Wesley Huff, a member of the Oath Keepers and a group known as the Georgia Militia, was arrested en route to a Tennessee courthouse with ammunition and loaded firearms.[22] A minister belonging to the Christian Identity movement, Huff planned to take over the courthouse and arrest local Tennessee officials who refused to indict President Obama on birther claims.[23] He was convicted and sentenced to four years in prison.[24] 

Criminal activity was not limited to rank-and-file members of the Oath Keepers. A month after Huff’s plot was foiled, Matthew Fairfield, president of an Oath Keepers chapter in Cleveland, Ohio, was arrested for explosives and child pornography charges.[25] Investigators found a live napalm bomb and other explosives in his possession. Fairfield was sentenced to sixteen years in prison in 2011.[26] It is unclear whether these individuals were connected to other members of OK or the group’s leadership. In 2011, Rhodes characterized the Oath Keepers as a group dedicated to educating members of the military and law enforcement about their duty to uphold the Constitution. He also claimed that “the entire point of [the group] is to advocate nonviolence.”[27]

Hayden, Huff, and Fairfield notwithstanding, OK generally remained fairly obscure for the first several years of its existence. Between 2009 and 2014, the organization participated in few major operations. In 2011, Rhodes and other OK members marched on the town hall in Quartzsite, Arizona, ostensibly to prevent the police chief from imposing martial law after a dispute with the town’s mayor.[28] In October 2013, Rhodes  announced the launch of OK’s Community Preparedness Teams, or CPT, program (initially “Civilization Preservation Teams”). By establishing the CPTs, Rhodes sought to position the Oath Keepers as a positive, nonthreatening organization. The CPTs are essentially an armed neighborhood watch, composed of groups of OK members pledged to provide security and emergency services to local communities after natural disasters, terrorist attacks, or other events.[29] CPTs have conducted paramilitary training on topics including weapons skills, patrolling techniques, and emergency relief.[30] 

2014-2016: Rise to Prominence within the Patriot/Militia Movement

After several quiet years, the Oath Keepers came to national attention in April 2014 when the group participated in an armed standoff with federal agents in Bunkerville, Nevada. When the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) attempted to confiscate some of rancher Cliven Bundy’s cattle per a federal court order over unpaid grazing fees, Bundy called for the patriot/militia movement to help him defy BLM.[31] Hundreds of activists from around the country flocked to Bundy’s ranch, including members of the Oath Keepers and Three Percenters, in one of the largest assemblies of anti-government extremists seen in recent decades.[32] Estimates of attendance reached up to 1,000. Bundy’s supporters traveled from states as far as Georgia, New Hampshire, and Virginia.[33] The OK contingent at Bundy’s ranch included Rhodes and Richard Mack, a retired sheriff from Arizona who served as a longtime board member of the Oath Keepers until 2015.[34] Mack also founded the Constitutional Sheriffs and Peace Officers Association (CSPOA), a group of sheriffs who support the patriot/militia movement.[35] 

The standoff lasted for several days and climaxed with a direct confrontation between BLM personnel and armed Bundy supporters. The militants came within shooting distance of the outnumbered federal agents.[36] Fearing that employees’ lives were in danger, BLM withdrew and ended its attempt to seize Bundy’s cattle.[37] During the standoff, OK claimed to be ready for violence. Mack said that they “were prepared to do whatever it takes” to defend Bundy and claimed that Bundy’s supporters “were actually strategizing to put all the women up at the front” so that news coverage of the standoff would show federal agents shooting women.[38] “This might go down in history as the first engagement of the modern American revolution,” Rhodes said of the campaign.[39] 

The armed confrontation at the Bundy Ranch was a turning point for the Oath Keepers. Prior to 2014, Rhodes’s fledgling group was not highly active or visible. OK’s handling of the standoff, however, catapulted it to prominence in the patriot/militia movement. Rhodes took advantage of the opportunities for free publicity.  He gave press conferences and appeared on TV news, making sure to wear the group’s branded clothing and display the group’s flag.[40] New members flocked to OK, and donations surged, though by how much is unclear.[41] OK initially promised to financially support other patriot/militia groups in the wake of its fundraising success. However, OK did not follow through on this promise, and local groups in Nevada responded by barring OK from returning to the area.[42]

In the years after the Bundy Ranch standoff, OK’s activity skyrocketed. Adopting a more interventionist posture, OK organized several major operations in response to perceived threats from the federal government and violence related to protests against police brutality. Such operations appear to have been motivated less by ideological reasons than by the desire to attract attention. Indeed, Rhodes’s critics have said that OK’s increasing appetite for conflict was a strategy orchestrated by the group’s leadership. Intervention in inflammatory or attention-grabbing situations awarded OK with more airtime and newspaper headlines – fueling donations, membership applications, and demand for OK’s branded merchandise.[43] Joseph Rice, leader of a former OK faction in Oregon that broke away from the national organization, described OK’s tactics: “like a moth to the flame, he [Rhodes] flies in, throws up a PayPal, and then disappears.”[44] Leaked membership files revealed cases of members quitting in frustration over the aggressive direction that Rhodes took with OK. However, the same files also showcase the increases in membership applications that followed Rhodes’s provocations.[45] 

In November and December 2014, OK conducted a major operation in Ferguson, Missouri. Ferguson had served as an epicenter of racial justice protests since the death of Michael Brown, a Black teenager, by a white police officer in August 2014. Anger at the grand jury’s decision not to indict the officer involved in Brown’s death, Darren Wilson, triggered civil unrest in late November 2014.[46] Days later, armed OK members deployed to Ferguson to provide security for local businesses and city residents.[47] Despite being ordered to stand down by local police, the OK operation continued for several weeks.[48] In an interview with VICE News, Rhodes claimed that OK’s security patrols in Ferguson were not motivated by white supremacism, citing the fact that OK guarded businesses owned by people of color. Instead, in Rhodes’s telling, OK sought to prevent violence.[49] John Karriman, leader of the Missouri OK chapter, suggested that OK provided security because of an alleged failure by the local government to do so. Karriman justified OK’s operation “because the government promised to guard our people and they didn’t.”[50] Ryan Lenz, an analyst with the Southern Poverty Law Center, noted that the operation appeared to be “a really weird mission” for OK, which traditionally had an anti-government focus.[51] According to Lenz, at the time, OK was unique among patriot/militia groups in intervening in such a polarizing situation characterized by racial tensions and civil unrest.[52]

OK again returned to headlines in April 2015 when the group had a chance to replay its success at the Bundy Ranch. After being cited by BLM for unauthorized mining activity at the Sugar Pine Mine in Oregon, Rich Barclay and George Backes requested security support from the Oath Keepers.[53] The local Josephine County Oath Keepers launched “Operation Gold Rush,” an armed patrol of the mining site in response to the miners’ fears of federal agents burning or confiscating their property.[54] According to OK, about 700 people from across the country participated, including members of other OK chapters, members of the Idaho III%ers, and other smaller patriot/militia groups based in the western United States.[55] The standoff ended in May when BLM decided that Barclay and Backes would be permitted to resume operating the mine while their court case was ongoing.[56] OK took credit for the result, claiming that the militants’ presence at Sugar Pine Mine thwarted BLM from violating the miners’ rights to due process.[57]

OK’s next major operation came in July 2015. On July 16, Mohammod Youssuf Abdulazeez killed U.S. Marines and a sailor during shootings at two military facilities, including a recruiting center, in Chattanooga, Tennessee.[58] Abdulazeez was not believed to have any connections to foreign terrorist organizations, but law enforcement initially announced that the attack was “an act of domestic terrorism.”[59] The Oath Keepers, along with Three Percenters militias, organized armed patrols to guard recruiting centers around the United States. The groups also sought to protest rules that barred servicemembers from carrying weapons at recruiting centers.[60] This behavior ran contrary to OK’s supposed opposition to the federal government. Sam Jackson, an expert on militias, pointed out the contradictory nature of OK’s ideology exposed by this operation: in this instance, OK supported the military and law enforcement, while in previous campaigns, such as the Bundy Ranch and Sugar Pine Mine, OK opposed the federal government.[61] As for the government’s view of OK’s operation, the U.S. Army Recruiting Command sent a letter to recruiters warning them to consider the armed civilians outside recruiting centers as a security threat.[62]

In August 2015, OK conducted a second Ferguson operation. Around the anniversary of Michael Brown’s death, racial justice protests and civil unrest surged in the city. Armed members of OK were also spotted in the streets.[63] John Karriman, the Missouri OK chapter leader, stated that OK militants had returned to Ferguson in order to provide security for the employees of InfoWars, a website that promotes conspiracy theories.[64] OK’s return in Ferguson prompted a major dispute within the group over race. Sam Andrews, a local OK leader, hatched a plan for the Oath Keepers to organize an open-carry march with Black residents in order to advocate for the Second Amendment across racial lines. A white gun rights activist, Andrews felt that every American citizen, regardless of race, should be entitled to exercise open carry of weapons.[65] Rhodes and OK’s national board of directors rejected the idea, concerned about the optics of arming Ferguson residents against law enforcement – qualms the group did not express when raising arms against BLM at the Bundy Ranch.[66] Accusing Rhodes and OK of “a racist double standard,” Andrews quit the group amidst the controversy.[67] He ultimately held the march in November 2015, but it yielded low turnout.[68]

OK attracted attention again in September 2015 when the group capitalized on the political frenzy surrounding gay marriage. In June 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Obergefell v. Hodges that bans on same-sex marriage were unconstitutional. Soon after, Kim Davis, an Apostolic Christian and county clerk in Kentucky, refused to issue marriage licenses to same-sex couples despite being ordered to do so by a federal court.[69] A judge found Davis in contempt of court and ordered her jailed for five days at the beginning of September.[70] After her release, Rhodes announced that he would send OK militants to Kentucky to provide Davis with a security detail and prevent her from being arrested again.[71] Rhodes clarified that OK did not act because of Davis’s stance on gay marriage, but to protect her due process rights.[72] Davis’s attorneys declined the offer of security support, and OK canceled the operation.[73] Though OK did not ultimately act, this episode reveals the group’s eagerness to attract attention by intervening in a nationally polarizing topic. 

Two years after the Bunkerville, Nevada standoff, the Oath Keepers intervened in another dispute between the Bundys and the federal government, this time in Oregon. Starting in December 2015, hundreds of militants and activists assembled in Burns, Oregon, to protest the convictions of Dwight Hammond, Jr. and his son Steven Hammond for setting fires on federal land.[74] The Hammonds initially served prison sentences shorter than the mandatory minimum for their charges. After they were released, the Hammonds were sentenced to additional time in prison. This angered the Hammonds’ supporters , many of whom were a part of the Pacific Patriot Network, an umbrella association of local patriot/militia groups including the Josephine County Oath Keepers and Three Percent of Idaho.[75] On January 2, 2016, a group of about fifteen to twenty militants led by Cliven Bundy’s son, Ammon Bundy, began an armed occupation of the Malheur Wildlife Refuge, pledging to remain as long as necessary until their grievances of federal overreach were resolved.[76] The occupation “blindsided other leaders of the Hammond support movement," who generally opposed Bundy’s escalation of the dispute as “radical” and “fringe.”[77] For example, one activist, BJ Soper, wrote to Bundy on Facebook: “You HIJACKED what turned out to be a great and peaceful rally.”[78] 

At least one member of OK, Jon Ritzheimer, joined Bundy in taking over the refuge and was later convicted and sentenced to 366 days in prison for his participation.[79] OK’s national leadership did not sanction Ritzheimer’s involvement in the standoff.  Rhodes spoke out against the occupation, arguing that it went against the wishes of the Hammond family and that it “will be perceived as having the least amount of legitimacy you could possibly imagine.”[80] The Pacific Patriots Network intervened to form an armed buffer between the occupiers and federal agents to prevent violence.[81] OK’s national leaders officially approved of the buffer mission, deeming it “a righteous mission, if done right.”[82] The occupation ended on February 11, 2016, forty-one days after it began, with one militant, Robert “LaVoy” Finicum, shot by federal agents and the rest taken into custody.[83] The violence led OK member Richard Mack to quit the organization. 

During its first several years as an organization, OK maintained an officially nonpartisan stance.[84] In 2016 OK engaged in a presidential election for the first time, in support of Donald Trump. The national organization did not officially endorse Trump’s campaign, but many OK members were motivated by their opposition to Hillary Clinton, whose husband was a nemesis of the patriot/militia movement in the 1990s.[85] Rhodes sought to deploy OK to provide security at the 2016 Republican National Convention but was outvoted by OK’s board of directors.[86] Nevertheless, under Rhodes’s leadership, OK later offered security services to pro-Trump activists at Trump rallies. Rhodes himself was seen in the VIP section of a Trump rally wearing an Oath Keepers shirt.[87] Furthering Trump’s pre-election claims of voter fraud, Rhodes called on OK militants to organize “incognito intelligence gathering and crime spotting” operations at the polls.[88] He also led webinars for members on conducting poll surveillance and responding to election-related civil unrest.[89] OK was not seen to have a major public presence at the polls, however.

Tensions within OK came to a head in August 2016 when a high-profile OK chapter left the national organization. The Josephine County Oath Keepers, which had led OK’s standoff at Sugar Pine Mine in 2015, split from OK to form a new group called the Citizen Patriots of Josephine County.[90] Rhodes’s leadership reportedly prompted the split. In an interview with the Southern Poverty Law Center, Josephine County OK leader Joseph Rice accused the national organization of betraying the group’s original mission and condemned Rhodes’s leadership.[91] According to Rice, “Stewart [Rhodes] is not a leader. He has no leadership ability. He self-promotes.”[92] By 2017, the Citizen Patriots appeared to have rebranded as the Liberty Watch of Josephine County.[93]

2017-2020: Ideological Pivots

Trump’s victory in the 2016 presidential election was a turning point for groups in the patriot/militia movement, including OK. During his campaign, Trump promised to fight back against the “deep state” loathed by the anti-government groups. After Trump was elected, a longtime enemy of the patriot/militia movement – the leader of the federal government – suddenly turned into an ally, according to extremism expert J.J. MacNab.[94] Conspiracy theories accusing the government of collaborating with a globalist “New World Order” cabal were no longer as potent, and the movement was thrust into confusion.[95] OK and its peers soon found a new ideological nemesis, however. Historian Mark Pitcavage recounted that once the far-left anti-fascist movement (known as antifa) began targeting Trump and Trump supporters, patriot/militia extremist groups started to rally around antifa as a common enemy.[96] After Trump’s election, OK considered antifa the greatest threat to the United States.[97] While holding onto basic tenets of New World Order conspiracy theories, OK dropped its fear of the federal government colluding with overseas enemies and instead emphasized the dangers of the deep state, globalists, and leftist groups.[98]

In 2017, the primary targets of OK’s operations shifted from the federal government and Black Lives Matter protesters to antifa. In the name of “free speech,” OK and other anti-government militias began providing security at events expected to be challenged by antifa counter-protesters.[99] OK’s leadership framed the new focus on antifa as part of the group’s long-standing mission. For example, OK militants traveled to Berkeley, California in April 2017 to serve as security for “free speech” protests attended by alt-right activists and anti-feminists. During this event, Rhodes described the cause of free speech as in line with OK’s declared mission to defend the Constitution.[100] In June, Rhodes spoke at the “Rally Against Political Violence” organized by activists and pledged that “antifa will get their asses handed to them by the American patriots.”[101]

OK provided security at several other events in 2017. These included nationwide anti-Muslim rallies and demonstrations in Portland, Oregon. In April 2017, OK offered its security services to ACT for America, the largest U.S. anti-Muslim organization. Along with the Three Percenters and the Proud Boys, OK provided armed patrols to ACT for America events in twenty-eight cities across the United States.[102] In June, OK joined patriot/militia groups including American Freedom M/C, Patriot Prayer, and the Three Percenters at a free speech rally in the face of a heavy antifa presence in Portland.[103]

OK’s increasing presence at these events raised tensions with others on the far right, particularly white supremacist groups. As Rhodes began to expand OK’s ideological purview beyond traditional anti-government extremism, he resisted associations with white supremacism. In April 2017, Rhodes said, “I dislike the neo-Nazis more than Anti-fa, since they try to worm their way in and by doing so, they harm the cause of liberty far more than the radical leftists could ever do.”[104] In August 2017, Rhodes declared that OK would not participate in events alongside “known white nationalists.” Rhodes specifically cited avoiding cooperation with Jake Von Ott, the leader of Identity Evropa, and Kyle Chapman, the leader of the Fraternal Order of Alt-Knights, a Proud Boys affiliate.[105] In June 2017, a member of a militia group called “This is Texas” put a white supremacist protester into a chokehold at a rally in support of a statue of Sam Houston in Houston, Texas.[106] Believing “This is Texas” to be associated with the Oath Keepers (the relationship between the groups is unclear), white nationalist websites The Daily Stormer and Altright.com condemned OK for its refusal to promote white supremacist ideology.[107] OK said that the individual who choked the protester was not affiliated with the organization.[108]

OK’s public activity declined in 2018 and 2019, although the group continued to prepare for conflict with antifa. In August 2018, Rhodes announced that OK would organize “Spartan Training Groups” across the United States, similar to OK’s previously existing Community Preparedness Teams (CPTs).[109] This program aimed to instruct citizens in the paramilitary and first aid skills needed to form a militia, which would stand ready to be called to service by governors, sheriffs, or the president to combat a prophesied antifa insurrection.[110] Rhodes cast antifa as an existential threat to the United States, warning that the far-left movement planned to open the floodgates to unrestricted immigration in order to win future elections.[111] 

OK next captured attention in June 2019. Oregon Governor Kate Brown sent state police to bring Republican senators back to the State Capitol to thwart their attempts to withhold a quorum.[112] OK responded, writing on Facebook, “Gov. Brown, you want a civil war, because this is how you get a civil war.”[113] Days later, the Oregon State Capitol shut down due to an undisclosed “possible militia threat.”[114] 

The Oath Keepers again leaped into the national discourse in early 2020 as the United States began to lock down in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Originally, OK’s national leadership supported COVID-19 restrictions. In early March 2020, Rhodes posted an open letter on the OK website in support of public health measures.[115] This stance led OK’s national chaplain, Chuck Baldwin, to resign.[116] By April 2020, OK began to oppose COVID-19 lockdowns. Via its social media accounts, OK spread misinformation about the alleged dangers of COVID-19 vaccines in development. The group also accused China of deliberately releasing the coronavirus and supported “Open America” protests against shelter-in-place orders.[117] 

OK also mobilized offline to defy public health guidelines. In late April 2020, a group of about ten Oath Keepers stood watch in support of a Texas gym owner’s decision to re-open his business in violation of Texas Governor Greg Abbott’s order closing gyms in the state.[118] In May, Rhodes personally spoke at a Texas rally in opposition to COVID-19 restrictions.[119] The Texas chapter of OK organized its own rally in Austin, the state capital, and called on members to provide armed security for a salon in Dallas.[120] OK’s activity was not limited to Texas. The same day as the operation at the salon, OK held a rally in Newburgh, New York, in support of a member opening his tattoo shop in violation of state COVID-19 guidelines.[121]

During the summer of 2020, the Oath Keepers capitalized on the resurgence of the Black Lives Matter movement that followed the killing of a Black man, George Floyd, by a Minneapolis police officer. Rhodes called Black Lives Matter protesters “well-funded Marxist and racist agitators,” and he organized teams of OK militants to guard businesses as protests against police brutality surged in 2020.[122] The Ohio State Regular Militia, an OK affiliate led by Jessica Watkins, was reportedly active in patrolling protests in Ohio and Kentucky, including a major OK operation in Louisville.[123] In late September 2020, about twenty Oath Keepers mobilized to provide security for Louisville businesses during Black Lives Matter protests following a grand jury’s decision not to indict police officers for the killing of Breonna Taylor, a Black paramedic.[124] Other notable events from OK’s engagement with police brutality and racial justice issues during summer 2020 included participation at a rally in support of pro-Confederate statue protesters in Weatherford, Texas and a “Back the Blue” demonstration in Tyler, Texas.[125] In Hood County, Texas, OK donated eight riot shields worth $1,000 to local police weeks after local Black Lives Matter protests.[126]

This period also saw OK adopt more inflammatory and violent rhetoric. After teenager Kyle Rittenhouse was arrested for shooting and killing two people protesting against police brutality in Kenosha, Wisconsin, in August 2020, Rhodes took to Twitter to call him a “patriot” and a hero.”[127] In August 2021, Aaron “Jay” Danielson, a member of the group Patriot Prayer, was shot and killed by Michael Reinoehl, an antifa supporter, in Portland, Oregon.[128] Incensed, Rhodes tweeted that “the first shot has been fired brother. Civil war is here, right now.”[129] On Facebook, John D. Shirley, an OK leader in Texas, called for the execution of Portland’s mayor.[130] Soon after, Twitter banned OK from its platform for violating policies on violent extremism.[131] In October 2020, Rhodes attended the fifth annual Red Pill Expo, a conference of conspiracy theorists, individual activists, and extremist groups, where he darkly warned of an imminent civil war with the far left.[132]

In fall 2020, OK supported Trump’s re-election bid. Promoting the president’s warnings that Democrats would try to steal the election, Rhodes pledged that OK would deploy its members undercover, potentially armed, to protect voters from intimidation.[133] However, as in 2016, OK was not seen to have a major public presence at the polls. Following Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Oath Keepers backed Trump’s unsubstantiated claims of voter fraud. The courts found no evidence to support the allegations; nearly all of Trump’s legal challenges to the election results were rejected, including by the U.S. Supreme Court.[134] Even as OK spread misinformation about election fraud in 2020, members of the group ran for public office themselves. For example, Oath Keeper Wendy Rogers won an Arizona state senate seat as a Republican representing District 6 in central Arizona.[135]

OK’s advocacy of Trump continued after his election loss. On November 14, 2020, the Oath Keepers joined similar extremist groups – including the Proud Boys and Three Percenters – and thousands of Trump supporters for the “Million MAGA March,” a demonstration in Washington, D.C. in support of the president.[136] The Oath Keepers called for volunteers to provide security for the “patriots” participating in the protest.[137] At the march, Oath Keepers leader Stewart Rhodes declared that the group did not recognize Joe Biden’s electoral victory.[138] He added that the organization would consider any actions Biden took as president to be illegitimate.[139] In a reference to American history, Rhodes claimed that members of his group would focus on “nullifying and resisting” Biden’s policies “very much like the founding fathers” did to oppose Great Britain.[140] At a Washington, D.C. rally of Trump supporters on December 12, 2020, Rhodes urged then-President Trump to invoke the Insurrection Act and declare martial law to prevent Biden from taking office.[141] Passed in 1807, this statute allows the President to use the U.S. military to quell domestic insurgencies.[142] If Trump chose not to do so, Rhodes threatened that the Oath Keepers would be forced to act, triggering a “much more bloody war.”[143]

January 2021: Storming of the U.S. Capitol and Federal Investigations

On January 6, 2021, the Oath Keepers participated in the storming of the U.S. Capitol by supporters of President Donald Trump seeking to prevent the certification of President Biden’s election victory. As Congress met to count electoral votes, a mob of Trump supporters breached security and trespassed on Capitol grounds. The U.S. Justice Department estimates that between 2,000 and 2,500 people entered the Capitol without authorization on January 6.[144] Only a minority of the rioters are believed to have ties to extremist groups; of approximately 650 people charged as of November 3, 2021, about 77 were affiliated with a known organization.[145] The two major groups known to have taken part in the violence are the Proud Boys and Oath Keepers.[146] 

Though the events of January 6 began as a protest, the storming of the Capitol became violent. According to a bipartisan Senate report released in June 2021, 140 police officers were injured and three, including Officer Brian Sicknick, died.[147] The report’s death toll does not include the two Washington Metropolitan Police Department officers who responded to the Capitol riot and who died by suicide in July 2021, a month after the report was released.[148] Two men unaffiliated with OK were arrested in March 2021 and charged with assault for allegedly spraying an unknown toxic chemical into the faces of three police officers, including Officer Sicknick.[149] In April 2021, the D.C. chief medical examiner announced that Officer Sicknick died of natural causes, namely two strokes nearly twenty-four hours after the Capitol attack.[150] It is unknown how many OK members were responsible for police casualties. At least one individual was captured on video surveillance attacking a Capitol police with bear spray while wearing a hat emblazoned with the words “Oath Keepers Lifetime Member.”[151] 

Four protesters died during the events of January 6. One woman was shot by U.S. Capitol police while part of a group of people attempted to force their way into the building. Another woman is believed to have been crushed to death in the unrest, and two men suffered a heart attack and a stroke, respectively.[152] None of the deceased had public ties to OK. It is unknown how many participants in the events were injured. According to reporting by ProPublica, at least one Oath Keeper was wounded in the riots.[153] 

The Oath Keepers is believed to have played a major role in the Capitol assault. The number of OK members involved is unclear, though some members were seen joining the crowds outside the U.S. Capitol. A group of about eight men later identified as members of the Oath Keepers were caught on video moving towards the doors of the Capitol.[154] According to a journalist present at the scene, multiple “pods” of approximately ten Oath Keepers roamed the U.S. Capitol complex wearing uniforms and tactical gear emblazoned with the Oath Keepers’ name.[155] Some individuals in the crowds outside and inside the Capitol were spotted wearing OK insignia, suggesting that the group did not attempt to completely hide its involvement.[156] However, before January 6, OK directed members participating in the protests against Joe Biden’s election victory to attend “in ‘grey man’ mode, without identifiable Oath Keepers gear.”[157] In a recording from the scene, Oath Keepers member Jessica Watkins is heard coordinating approximately thirty to forty others, which gives a rough estimate of the number of Oath Keepers present.[158] Rhodes was seen speaking with OK members outside the Capitol over the course of the day, although no evidence shows him entering the building.[159] 

It is disputed whether the Oath Keepers’ involvement in violence at the Capitol on January 6 was formally organized by the group’s leaders or planned by individual members at a lower level of the OK hierarchy. The OK national leadership has denied responsibility for the attack, but prosecutors allege that Rhodes was involved. A Florida Oath Keeper charged for his involvement in the Capitol violence said that no leader gave an order to forcibly enter the Capitol.[160] 

Messages exchanged by Watkins and Thomas E. Caldwell, an alleged OK co-conspirator, before January 6 showed impatience with Rhodes for not giving members of the Oath Keepers greater instruction before the counting of electoral votes by Congress.[161] According to a federal indictment, the leader of Oath Keepers – identified as “Person One” in an almost certain reference to Rhodes – urged members of the organization to go to D.C. in advance of January 6. Person One published an article on the OK website encouraging members of the group to “get to DC” in order to “defeat the enemies foreign and domestic who are attempting a coup, through the massive vote fraud and related attacks on our Republic.” In the article, Person One maintained that OK is “both honor-bound and eager to be there in strength to do our part.”[162]

According to federal prosecutors, Rhodes was in contact with the Oath Keepers who stormed the Capitol before, during, and after the riots. He reportedly offered advice on tactical gear and commented on the storming of the Capitol with other group members.[163]Rhodes has stated, however, that he did not direct members of his group to storm the Capitol. Additionally, Rhodes has maintained that the Oath Keepers’ purpose for being in Washington, D.C. was to provide security for VIPs attending protests in support of President Trump.[164] He has described the OK members involved in the storming of the Capitol as rogue members acting outside the control and direction of the Oath Keepers leadership.[165]

In the wake of the assault on the Capitol, the Oath Keepers, along with the Proud Boys and Three Percenters, became a focus of the FBI’s investigation into the violence.[166] Prosecutors claimed that members of OK planned in advance to block certification of Joe Biden’s election. An indictment filed on February 19, 2021, argued that a group of nine participants in the Capitol riots, all affiliated with the Oath Keepers, conspired to storm the Capitol and prevent electoral votes from being counted.[167] Prosecutors argued that the Oath Keepers planned for weeks in advance of January 6 to use violence in order to obstruct Congressional certification of the election results and help former President Trump remain in office.[168]

As early as November 9, for example, OK member Jessica Watkins allegedly began recruiting others for a January training camp with the goal of being “fighting fit by inauguration.”[169] Thomas E. Caldwell, a Navy veteran allegedly tied to OK, is accused of arranging for a bus to travel with weaponry and at least forty people from North Carolina to Washington, D.C.[170] In an interview with The Washington Post, Rhodes said that Caldwell was not a leader or a formal member of the Oath Keepers.[171] Internal messages showed OK militants planning to bring firearms, mace, gas masks, and other tactical gear to Washington, D.C. during the first week of January.[172] 

In February 2022, it was reported that the FBI was investigating a meeting between Stewart Rhodes, Proud Boys leader Enrique Tarrio, and OK general counsel Kellye SoRelle, in a Washington, D.C. parking garage on January 5, 2021.[173] A documentary filmmaker recorded portions of the meeting. In one clip, an unidentified attendee reportedly can be heard saying: “It’s inevitable. It’s going to happen. We just have to do it strong, fast, together.”[174] Both Rhodes and Tarrio deny close ties between the Oath Keepers and Proud Boys.[175] In a deposition conducted by the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the U.S. Capitol, Tarrio described a strained relationship with the Oath Keepers after Rhodes had promised to provide transportation to attendees of Tarrio’s rally in Portland in 2019 but backed out at the last minute. Tarrio stated in his testimony: “after that, I called that whole Oath Keepers group the ‘Oath Breakers.’” Tarrio claimed that the January 5 parking garage meeting was not a preplanned meetup with Rhodes: “I didn't go to meet Rhodes. He just happened to be there.”[176] 

By November 2022, at least twenty-five individuals with ties to the Oath Keepers had been charged for involvement in the assault on the Capitol.[177] These included Watkins, Caldwell, and others from Ohio, Florida, and Virginia.[178] Prosecutors alleged that they planned in advance to storm the Capitol and prevent Joe Biden from being certified as the election winner.[179] Other named offenses included obstruction of an official proceeding, destruction of government property, and trespassing.[180] In addition to criminal charges against its members, the national Oath Keepers organization faced a civil lawsuit. In mid-February 2021, Congressman Bennie Thompson (D-Miss) sued President Trump, Rudy Giuliani, the Proud Boys, and the Oath Keepers for alleged conspiracy to violate the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 by attempting to block Congress’ certification of the Electoral College vote.[181] In April 2021, ten other Democratic members of Congress joined the suit.[182] Several months later, in July 2021, Thompson dismissed himself from the lawsuit after he was selected as the Chairman of the Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol. In explaining his decision, Thompson stated, “In an effort to avoid the appearance of a conflict, I’ve dismissed my claim in the lawsuit I brought to address the events of Jan 6."[183] The NAACP continued the lawsuit, and on February 18, 2022, a U.S. District Court Judge allowed it to move forward.[184]

Oath Keepers leader Stewart Rhodes was arrested on January 13, 2022, at his home in Texas and charged with seditious conspiracy, a felony defined as attempting “to overthrow, put down or to destroy by force” the U.S. government.[185] Ten other OK members were also charged with seditious conspiracy, including nine who already faced lesser charges.[186] These seditious conspiracy charges are the most serious the Justice Department has filed in connection to the events of January 6. 

The day after Rhodes’ arrest, Oath Keepers announced that Kellye SoRelle had been appointed as acting President of Oath Keepers “in lieu of Mr. Rhodes until he is released.”[187] SoRelle previously served as the Oath Keepers general counsel, as well as counsel for Latinos for Trump and Blacks for Trump. SoRelle’s phone was seized by the FBI in September 2021 as a part of the seditious conspiracy investigation into Rhodes and nine other OK members.[188] On September 1, 2022, SoRelle was arrested in Texas and charged with four offenses, including "obstructing the certification of the 2020 election and tampering with evidence in the Justice Department’s investigation of the Capitol riot.”[189] SoRelle pleaded not guilty to the charges.[190]

By early May 2022, three of the indicted Oath Keepers had pled guilty to seditious conspiracy, including William Todd Wilson, Brian Ulrich, and Joshua James.[191] In September 2022, five of the members who pleaded not guilty to seditious conspiracy were put on trial. Those individuals included Stewart Rhodes, Kelly Meggs, Kenneth Harrelson, Jessica Watkins, and Thomas Caldwell. Three of them—Watkins, Meggs, and Harrelson—entered the building during the attack on the Capitol.[192] Prosecutors alleged that the defendants attempted to stop the certification of President Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 election “by any means necessary,” including violence.[193] More specifically, prosecutors sought to show that the Oath Keepers’ actions on January 6 were not “a spontaneous outpouring of election-fueled rage” but rather part of a detailed, premeditated plan to keep Donald Trump in office.[194] To prove their claim, prosecutors focused on the large stockpile of weapons that Rhodes and other Oath Keepers had assembled at a hotel in Arlington, Virginia, in the days leading up to the Capitol attack.[195] At the center of Rhodes’ and the other Oath Keepers’ defense was the claim that their attack on the Capitol was based on the belief that President Trump would invoke the Insurrection Act “to call up a militia to support him.”[196] Thus, as Rhodes argued, “the Oath Keepers could not be found guilty because they were simply following their president’s orders.”[197]

On November 29, 2022, Stewart Rhodes and Kelly Meggs, the leader of the Florida chapter of Oath Keepers, were convicted of seditious conspiracy. Months later, on May 25, 2023, Rhodes was sentenced to eighteen years in prison while Meggs received a twelve-year sentence.[198] Rhodes’ defense attorney said they planned to appeal his conviction.[199] The three other defendants were acquitted of the seditious conspiracy charge. All five defendants were found guilty of obstructing an official proceeding.[200] 

A second trial for Oath Keepers members began in December 2022. The defendants in this second trial included Roberto Minuta, Joseph Hackett, David Moerschel and Edward Vallejo. They were charged with seditious conspiracy along with several other felonies.[201] Unlike the defendants in the first trial, these members were more “disconnected from the top brass of the far-right militia.”[202] In opening statements on December 12, 2022, prosecutors argued that the defendants “decided to take the presidential election into their own hands."[203] Following the seven-week trial, all four defendants were convicted of seditious conspiracy along with two separate conspiracy charges.[204] Five months later, in June 2023, the men were sentenced to varying prison terms ranging in length from 36 months to 54 months.[205]

In March 2023, a federal jury convicted Connie Meggs (wife of Kelly Meggs), William Isaacs, and Sandra and Bennie Parker of conspiring to obstruct an official proceeding, a felony. Sandra Parker, Meggs, Steele, and Isaacs were also convicted of obstruction of an official proceeding, conspiring to prevent an officer of the United States from discharging a duty and destruction of government property, all felonies.  In late August, Meggs was sentenced to 15 months in prison; the other defendants were sentenced to 60 months of probation.[206]

On July 12, 2023, federal prosecutors filed court papers to appeal the length of prison sentences given to seven of the convicted Oath Keepers members, including Stewart Rhodes.[207] According to CNN reporters Hannah Rabinowitz and Katelyn Polantz, the “filings did not provide the reasoning or legal arguments for the DOJ’s appeals, but several of the Oath Keepers’ sentences were well below what prosecutors had asked for in court.”[208] For example, Rhodes was sentenced to 18 years in prison, even though the Justice Department had sought a 25-year sentence.[209]

Splits in the Oath Keepers after January 6

January 6 produced fissures within the Oath Keepers organization. The North Carolina chapter of the group opposed OK’s involvement in the Capitol insurrection. The chapter, led by leader Doug Smith, unanimously voted to break away from the national organization in February 2021.[210] The chapter had begun distancing itself from the OK national leadership as early as November 2020, disenchanted with OK’s embrace of election-related conspiracy theories.[211] According to Smith, the North Carolina Oath Keepers would refocus its efforts on supporting local law enforcement.[212] Following the indictment of Stewart Rhodes, Smith again disavowed the national organization, writing in August 2022, “Myself and other former North Carolina Oathkeepers that I have spoken to are saddened to see the direction that the national Oathkeepers organization took on Jan. 6, 2021…It sickens us that instead of standing shoulder to shoulder with Capitol and DC police to repel the attack on our historic Capitol building that some in the National Oathkeepers organization had participated in the attack.”[213]

The Indiana Oath Keepers also distanced itself from the national organization after January 6. When an Indiana man, caught on video attacking Capitol police officers while wearing an OK hat, turned himself in to the FBI in Indiana, the Indiana Oath Keepers asserted in an official statement that he was not a member of the chapter.[214] An anonymous leader of the chapter claimed in an interview with a local newspaper that the Indiana Oath Keepers had split from the national leadership three years earlier, though the chapter kept the name, logo, and mission statement of the national Oath Keepers.[215]

After the January 6 attack, Jim Arroyo, the Vice President of the Arizona OK chapter, announced that his chapter would split from the central OK organization.[216] In correspondence with Vice News, Arroyo reported that his OK chapter had been operating largely autonomously since 2018 after Rhodes broke ties with the chapter when Arroyo refused to join OK operations at the U.S.-Mexico border.[217] Arroyo renamed the Arizona OK chapter as the Yavapai County Preparedness Team (YCPT) in 2018 and registered it as a nonprofit organization. In an article published by local news outlet The Daily Courier and posted on the YCPT’s website, Arroyo asserted that the YCPT was not connected to the January 6 riot and claimed that he advised members to “stay away from it.” Arroyo estimated that 100-400 people attended the group’s public meetings, and more than 1,000 individuals were on the YCPT email list.[218]

While Arroyo claims to have officially split from OK, his group still uses OK branding. As of October 2023, the group’s website uses the OK logo and flag.[219] At an August 2022 meeting posed on YouTube, Arroyo reportedly told members in attendance wearing OK gear: “Your shirts and hats are what tell the world you’re not ashamed to be an Oath Keeper, or afraid of the government just because of that crap that happened on January the 6th, which was completely staged. It was a setup.” [220] YCPT, along with its “sister organization” the Lions of Liberty, organized efforts to monitor ballot drop boxes for fraudulent activities during the 2022 midterm election. Photos of a September 2022 meeting on the topic show the YCPT banner hanging alongside an Oath Keepers banner for “Yavapai County, Arizona Chapter.”[221] A lawsuit was filed in October 2022 by the League of Women Voters of Arizona that alleged the YCPT and the Lions of Liberty’s efforts to surveil ballot drop boxes amounted to voter intimidation.[222] YCPT and Lions of Liberty ultimately agreed to cease their monitoring operations and were dismissed from the case.[223]

[1] “‘Alt-Right’ Declares Flame War On Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. June 15, 2017. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/06/15/alt-right-declares-flame….

[2] “Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keep….

[3] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[4] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elme….

[5] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 143.

[6] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 142.

[7] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 142.

[8] “Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/group/oath-keep…

[9] “Racism & Identity in the Patriot Movement.” Rural Organizing Project. Accessed January 13, 2023. https://rop.org/uia/section-i/the-patriot-movement-historically-nationa….     

[10] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elme…

[11] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-…%

[12] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-…%

[13] Kennedy, Bud. “Fort Worth-area law officers’ emails show past ties to paranoid Oath Keepers militia.” Fort Worth Star-Telegram. January 25, 2021. https://www.star-telegram.com/news/politics-government/article248562800….

[14] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elme….

[15] Gouras, Matt. “In Lincoln County and across the West: Oath Keepers want sheriff back as top cop.” Missoulian. June 1, 2010. https://missoulian.com/news/local/in-lincoln-county-and-across-the-west….

[16] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militia….

[17] “Oath Keepers and Three %ers Part of Growing Anti-Government Movement.” Anti-Defamation League. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers-and-three-ers-…%.

[18] “Tea Party Twitter Arrest: Daniel Hayden Threatened Mass Murder, Cop Killing.” Huffington Post. May 25, 2011. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/tea-party-twitter-arrest_n_191527.

[19] “Elmer Stewart Rhodes.” Southern Poverty Law Center. Accessed November 27, 2022. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/elme…

[20] Poulsen, Kevin. “Oklahoma Man Arrested for Twittering Tea Party Death Threats.” Wired. April 24, 2009. https://www.wired.com/2009/04/twitterraid/.

[21] “Oklahoma City Man Receives Eight-Month Sentence for Twitter Threat.” FBI. February 2, 2010. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/oklahomacity/press-releases/2010/ok02….

[22] Gunter, Booth. “Oath Keeper Convicted on Weapons Charge, Attempted ‘Citizen’s Arrest.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. October 25, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2011/10/25/oath-keeper-convicted-we…-‘citizen’s-arrest’.

[23] Gunter, Booth. “Oath Keeper Convicted on Weapons Charge, Attempted ‘Citizen’s Arrest.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. October 25, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2011/10/25/oath-keeper-convicted-we…-‘citizen’s-arrest’.

[24] “Militia Extremist Sentenced to Four Years in Prison for Take Over Plot.” FBI. May 15, 2012. https://archives.fbi.gov/archives/knoxville/press-releases/2012/militia….

[25] Sparling, Hannah K. and Kevin Grasha. “Ohio militias: Who are the Oath Keepers, Ohio State Regular Militia?” The Cincinnati Enquirer. January 22, 2021. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news
/2021/01/21/ohio-militias-who-oath-keepers-ohio-state-regular-militia/4231869001/.

[26] Sparling, Hannah K. and Kevin Grasha. “Ohio militias: Who are the Oath Keepers, Ohio State Regular Militia?” The Cincinnati Enquirer. January 22, 2021. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news
/2021/01/21/ohio-militias-who-oath-keepers-ohio-state-regular-militia/4231869001/.

[27] Balko, Randy. “An Interview With Stewart Rhodes.” Reason. February 7, 2011. https://reason.com/2011/02/07/an-interview-with-stewart-rhod/?print=.

[28] Lenz, Ryan. “Are the Oath Keepers Fighting ‘Martial Law’?” Southern Poverty Law Center. November 15, 2011. https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2011/are-oa…-‘martial-law’.

[29] “The Oath Keepers.” Anti-Defamation League. 2021. https://www.adl.org/Backgrounders/OathKeepers. ; Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 44.

[30] “The Oath Keepers.” Anti-Defamation League. 2021. https://www.adl.org/Backgrounders/OathKeepers.

[31] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America's Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-o….

[32] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.

[33] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America's Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-o….

[34] Mencimer, Stephanie. “He Was a Board Member of the Oath Keepers. Now He’s Holding State-Approved Trainings for Law Enforcement in Texas.” Mother Jones. October 29, 2021. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2021/10/oath-keepers-texas-richard….

[35] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 46.

[36] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.

[37] Childress, Sarah. “The Battle Over Bunkerville: The Bundys, the Federal Government and the New Militia Movement.” PBS Frontline. May 16, 2017. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/the-battle-over-bunkerville/.

[38] Wyler, Grace. “The Bundy Ranch Standoff Was Only the Beginning for America’s Right-Wing Militias.” VICE News. April 16, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dpwykw/an-armed-standoff-in-nevada-is-o…. ; Fuller, Jaime. “The long fight between the Bundys and the federal government, from 1989 to today.” The Washington Post. January 4, 2016. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2014/04/15/everything-yo….

[39] Goldwasser, Rachel. “Well Before The Jan. 6 Insurrection, Oath Keepers Trafficked in Violence and Conspiracy Theories.” Southern Poverty Law Center. February 12, 2021. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2021/02/12/well-jan-6-insurrection-….

[40] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[41] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[42] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[43] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….      

[44] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[45] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militia….

[46] Davey, Monica and Julie Bosman. “Protests Flare After Ferguson Police Officer Is Not Indicted.” The New York Times. November 24, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/25/us/ferguson-darren-wilson-shooting-m….

[47] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonp….

[48] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonp….

[49] Hay, Mark. “The ​Leader of Oath Keepers Says the Right-Wing Group Is in Ferguson to ‘Protect the Weak.’” VICE News. December 1, 2014. https://www.vice.com/en/article/av48bg/leader-of-oath-keepers-says-the-….

[50] Fowler, Sarah. “Ferguson unrest: Who are the mysterious ‘Oath Keepers’?” BBC News. August 12, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-33867245.

[51] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonp….

[52] Heffernan, Brian. “In Ferguson, Oath Keepers draw both suspicion and gratitude.” Al Jazeera America. December 14, 2014. http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2014/12/14/oath-keepers-fergusonp….

[53] Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.

[54] Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.

[55] Pogue, James. “The Oath Keepers Are Ready for War with the Federal Government.” VICE News. September 14, 2015. https://www.vice.com/en/article/exq8en/miner-threat-0000747-v22n9. ; Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine.

[56] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 49-50.

[57] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 49-50.

[58] Fausset, Richard, Alan Blinder, and Michael S. Schmidt. “Gunman Kills 4 Marines at Military Site in Chattanooga.” The New York Times. July 16, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/us/chattanooga-tennessee-shooting.ht…. ; Fausset, Richard, Richard Pérez-Peña, and Matt Apuzzo. “Slain Troops in Chattanooga Saved Lives Before Giving Their Own.” The New York Times. July 22, 2015. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/23/us/chattanooga-tennessee-shooting-in….

[59] Calamur, Krishnadev and Eyder Peralta. “Gunman's Motivation Unclear After Shootings At Tennessee Military Sites.” NPR. July 16, 2015. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/16/423489864/shooting-r….

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[61] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 51.

[62] Neuman, Scott. “Army Warns Of 'Armed Citizens' Trying To Protect Recruiting Stations.” NPR. July 23, 2015. https://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2015/07/23/425661376/army-warns….

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[64] Laughland, Oliver, Jon Swaine, and Joanna Walters. “White militiamen roam Ferguson with rifles while black men wrongly arrested.” The Guardian. August 12, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/aug/11/oath-keepers-ferguson-a….

[65] Feuer, Alan. “The Oath Keeper Who Wants to Arm Black Lives Matter.” Rolling Stone. January 3, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-oath-keeper-who-w….

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[67] Walker, Jesse. “Oath Keeper Who Called for #BlackOpenCarry March in Ferguson Leaves the Group, Plans His Own March; Oath Keepers Say the Original March Will Proceed.” Reason. August 27, 2015. https://reason.com/2015/08/27/oath-keeper-who-called-for-blackopencarr/.

[68] Feuer, Alan. “The Oath Keeper Who Wants to Arm Black Lives Matter.” Rolling Stone. January 3, 2016. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/the-oath-keeper-who-w….

[69] Higdon, James and Sandhya Somashekhar. “Kentucky clerk ordered to jail for refusing to issue gay marriage license.” The Washington Post. September 3, 2015. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/defiant-kentucky-clerk-could-be….

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[71] Neiwert, David. “Oath Keepers Head to Kentucky to Repeat Bundy Ranch Tactics in Kim Davis Dispute.” Southern Poverty Law Center. September 10, 2015. https://www.splcenter.org
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[72] Neiwert, David. “Oath Keepers Head to Kentucky to Repeat Bundy Ranch Tactics in Kim Davis Dispute.” Southern Poverty Law Center. September 10, 2015. https://www.splcenter.org
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[74] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.

[75] Zaitz, Les. “Oregon ranchers' fight with feds sparks militias’ interest.” The Oregonian. January 9, 2019. https://www.oregonlive.com/pacific-northwest-news/2015/12/ranchers_figh…. ; Peacher, Amanda. “There's Another Armed Group In Burns And It's Not The Bundys.” OPB. January 10, 2016. https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-new….

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[77] Wiles, Tay. “Malheur occupation, explained.” High Country News. January 4, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/oregon-occupation-at-wildlife-refuge.

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[79] Bernstein, Maxine. “Oregon refuge occupier Jon Ritzheimer: ‘I am extremely sorry for this entire mess.’” The Oregonian. January 9, 2019. https://www.oregonlive.com/oregon-standoff/2017/11/oregon_refuge_occupi….

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[81] Peacher, Amanda. “There's Another Armed Group In Burns And It's Not The Bundys.” OPB. January 10, 2016. https://www.opb.org/news/series/burns-oregon-standoff-bundy-militia-new….

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[83] “Oregon standoff timeline: 41 days of the Malheur refuge occupation and the aftermath.” The Oregonian. February 14, 2017. https://www.oregonlive.com/portland/2017/02/oregon_standoff_timeline_41….

[84] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militia….

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[86] Garrison, Jessica, Ken Bensinger, and Salvador Hernandez. “Oath Keepers Founder Betrayed Mission, Former Members Say.” Buzzfeed News. March 4, 2021. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/jessicagarrison/stewart-rhodes-oat….

[87] Giglio, Mike. “A Pro-Trump Militant Group Has Recruited Thousands of Police, Soldiers, and Veterans.” The Atlantic. November 2020. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/11/right-wing-militia….

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[90] Sunshine, Spencer. “The Oath Keepers in Oregon.” Political Research Associates. October 3, 2016. https://www.politicalresearch.org/2016/10/03/the-oath-keepers-in-oregon.

[91] Lenz, Ryan. “Leader of Josephine County Oath Keepers Breaks with Stewart Rhodes Over Leadership Style.” Southern Poverty Law Center. May 16, 2017. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/05/16
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[98] Lederman, Josh. “The founder of a far-right militia once warned of federal tyranny. Then came Trump.” NBC News. February 2, 2021. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/politics-news/founder-far-right-militi….

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[101] “Dueling Alt-Right Rallies, Separated by Anti-Semitism, Face Off in DC Despite Calls to ‘Unite the Right.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. June 26, 2017. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/06/26/dueling-alt-right-rallie….

[102] Morlin, Bill. “ACT’s Anti-Muslim Message Fertile Ground for Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. June 12, 2017. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/06/12/act’s-anti-muslim-message-fertile-ground-oath-keepers.

[103] Sottile, Leah. “Right-wing free speech rally draws massive counterprotests in Portland.” The Washington Post. June 4, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/right-wing-free-speech-rally-dr….

[104] Hawkins, Derek. “‘Boomer antifa’: White supremacists rip into paramilitary Oath Keepers for not being racist enough.” The Washington Post. June 16, 2017. https://www.washingtonpost.com
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[108] “‘Alt-Right’ Declares Flame War On Oath Keepers.” Southern Poverty Law Center. June 15, 2017. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2017/06/15/alt-right-declares-flame….

[109] Neiwert, David. “Oath Keepers announce national ‘Spartan’ training program aimed at ‘violent left.’” Southern Poverty Law Center. August 23, 2018. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2018/08/23/oath-keepers-announce-na…-‘spartan’-training-program-aimed-‘violent-left’.

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[114] Zimmerman, Sarah and Gillian Flaccus. “Militia threat shuts down Oregon Statehouse amid walkout.” Associated Press. June 21, 2019. https://apnews.com/article/f320309a26ff4e36b0945954b03201e5.

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[129] Goldwasser, Rachel. “Well Before The Jan. 6 Insurrection, Oath Keepers Trafficked in Violence and Conspiracy Theories.” Southern Poverty Law Center. February 12, 2021. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2021/02/12/well-jan-6-insurrection-….

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[131] Fears, Danika. “Twitter Bans Far-Right Militia Group the Oath Keepers for Violating Violent Extremism Policy.” The Daily Beast. September 10, 2020. https://www.thedailybeast.com/twitter-bans-far-right-militia-group-the-….

[132] Quammen, Betsy. “Way beyond the Proud Boys: The militias and conspiracy theorists to worry about as the election approaches.” New York Daily News. October 14, 2020. https://www.nydailynews.com
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[135] “Results for the Arizona state House, Senate races in 2020 election.” 12 News. 3 November 2020. https://www.12news.com/article/news/politics/results-election-arizona-s….

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[138] Connolly, Griffin and Richard Hall. “America’s largest militia says it will refuse to recognise Biden as president and ‘resist’ his administration.” The Independent. November 15, 2020. https://www.independent
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[139] Connolly, Griffin and Richard Hall. “America’s largest militia says it will refuse to recognise Biden as president and ‘resist’ his administration.” The Independent. November 15, 2020. https://www.independent
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[140] Connolly, Griffin and Richard Hall. “America’s largest militia says it will refuse to recognise Biden as president and ‘resist’ his administration.” The Independent. November 15, 2020. https://www.independent
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[141] Stan, Adele M. “Oath Keepers’ Stewart Rhodes Calls for ‘Bloody War’ if Trump Doesn’t Invoke Insurrection Act.” Right Wing Watch. December 14, 2020. https://www.rightwingwatch.org/post/oath-keepers-stewart-rhodes-calls-f….

[142] Montanaro, Domenico. “What Is The Insurrection Act That Trump Is Threatening To Invoke?” NPR. June 1, 2020. https://www.npr.org/2020/06/01/867467714/what-is-the-insurrection-act-t….

[143] Stan, Adele M. “Oath Keepers’ Stewart Rhodes Calls for ‘Bloody War’ if Trump Doesn’t Invoke Insurrection Act.” Right Wing Watch. December 14, 2020. https://www.rightwingwatch.org/post/oath-keepers-stewart-rhodes-calls-f….

[144] Lucas, Ryan. “Where the Jan. 6 insurrection investigation stands, one year later.” NPR. January 6, 2022. https://www.npr.org/2022/01/06/1070736018/jan-6-anniversary-investigati….

[145] Schnell, Mychael. “Vast majority of Jan. 6 suspects not part of right-wing groups, conspiracies: WaPo.” The Hill. November 9, 2021. https://thehill.com/policy/national-security/580836-vast-majority-of-ja….

[146] Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer, Denise Lu, Eleanor Lutz, and Alex Leeds Matthews. “A Small Group of Militants’ Outsize Role in the Capitol Attack.” The New York Times. February 21, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/02/21/us/capitol-riot-attack-m….

[147] Jackman, Tom. “Police union says 140 officers injured in Capitol riot.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/police-union-says-14…. ; Cameron, Chris. “These Are the People Who Died in Connection With the Capitol Riot.” The New York Times. January 5, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deaths.html.

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[149] Hsu, Spencer S., Peter Hermann, and Emily Davies. “Two arrested in assault on police officer Brian D. Sicknick, who died after Jan. 6 Capitol riot.” The Washington Post. March 15, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/two-arrested-in-assau….

[150] Wise, Alana. “Capitol Police Officer Brian Sicknick Died Of Natural Causes, Medical Examiner Rules.” NPR. April 19, 2021. https://www.npr.org/2021/04/19/988876722/capitol-police-officer-brian-s….

[151] East, Andy. “A local connection: Indiana Oath Keepers confirms group in Bartholomew County.” The Republic. January 31, 2021. http://www.therepublic.com/2021/01/31/a-local-connection-indiana-oath-k….

[152] McEvoy, Jemima. “Woman Possibly ‘Crushed To Death’: These Are The Five People Who Died Amid Pro-Trump Riots.” Forbes. January 8, 2021. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jemimamcevoy/2021/01/08/woman-possibly-cru….

[153] Thompson, A.C. and Ford Fischer. “Members of Several Well-Known Hate Groups Identified at Capitol Riot.” PBS Frontline. January 9, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/several-well-known-hate-grou….

[154] Thompson, A.C. and Ford Fischer. “Members of Several Well-Known Hate Groups Identified at Capitol Riot.” PBS Frontline. January 9, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/several-well-known-hate-grou….

[155] Liu, Diana. “Who are these militia seen charging up the steps during the US Capitol siege?” France24. January 12, 2021. https://observers.france24.com/en/americas/20210112-us-militia-oath-kee….

[156] Barrett, Devlin and Spencer S. Hsu. “FBI probes possible connections between extremist groups at heart of Capitol violence.” The Washington Post. January 18, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/oath-keeper-three-perc….

[157] Goldwasser, Rachel and Hatewatch Staff. “Well Before The Jan. 6 Insurrection, Oath Keepers Trafficked in Violence and Conspiracy Theories.” Southern Poverty Law Center. February 12, 2021. https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2021/02/12/well-jan-6-insurrection-….

[158] Hsu, Spencer S., Rachel Weiner, and Tom Jackman. “Self-styled militia members in three states began planning in November for recruits, weapons ahead of Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/self-styled-militia-m….

[159] Thompson, A.C. and Ford Fischer. “Members of Several Well-Known Hate Groups Identified at Capitol Riot.” PBS Frontline. January 9, 2021. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/several-well-known-hate-grou….

[160] Hsu, Spencer S. and Aaron C. Davis. “Oath Keepers founder Stewart Rhodes was in direct contact with rioters before and during Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. March 9, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/stewart-rhodes-oathke….

[161] Barrett, Devlin, Spencer S. Hsu, and Aaron C. Davis. “‘Be ready to fight’: FBI probe of U.S. Capitol riot finds evidence detailing coordination of an assault.” The Washington Post. January 30, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/fbi-capitol-riot-coord….

[162] “United States of America v. Thomas Edward Caldwell, Donovan Ray Crowl, Jessica Watkins, Sandra Parker, Bennie Parker, Graydon Young, Laura Steele, Kelly Meggs, and Connie Meggs.” United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Indictment filed February 19, 2021. https://int.nyt.com/data/documenttools/oath-keepers-superseding-indictm….

[163] Hsu, Spencer S. and Aaron C. Davis. “Oath Keepers founder Stewart Rhodes was in direct contact with rioters before and during Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. March 9, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/stewart-rhodes-oathke….

[164] Barrett, Devlin, Spencer S. Hsu, and Aaron C. Davis. “‘Be ready to fight’: FBI probe of U.S. Capitol riot finds evidence detailing coordination of an assault.” The Washington Post. January 30, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/fbi-capitol-riot-coord….

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[167] “United States of America v. Thomas Edward Caldwell, Donovan Ray Crowl, Jessica Watkins, Sandra Parker, Bennie Parker, Graydon Young, Laura Steele, Kelly Meggs, and Connie Meggs.” United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Indictment filed February 19, 2021. https://int.nyt.com/data/documenttools/oath-keepers-superseding-indictm….

[168] Feuer, Alan and Katie Benner. “More Oath Keeper Suspects Charged in Capitol Riot Plot.” The New York Times. February 19, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/19/us/politics/oath-keepers-capitol-rio….

[169] Hsu, Spencer S., Rachel Weiner, and Tom Jackman. “Self-styled militia members in three states began planning in November for recruits, weapons ahead of Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/self-styled-militia-m….

[170] Hsu, Spencer S., Rachel Weiner, and Tom Jackman. “Self-styled militia members in three states began planning in November for recruits, weapons ahead of Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/self-styled-militia-m….

[171] Hsu, Spencer S., Rachel Weiner, and Tom Jackman. “Self-styled militia members in three states began planning in November for recruits, weapons ahead of Capitol breach, U.S. alleges.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/legal-issues/self-styled-militia-m….

[172] Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer, Denise Lu, Eleanor Lutz, and Alex Leeds Matthews. “A Small Group of Militants’ Outsize Role in the Capitol Attack.” The New York Times. February 21, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/02/21/us/capitol-riot-attack-m….

[173] Roston, Aram. “FBI Probes Pre-Capitol Riot Meeting of Far-Right Groups.” Reuters. February 8, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-proudboy-meeting-exclusive-idCAK….

[174] Feuer, Alan, and Zach Montague. “New Details Emerge of Meeting Between Proud Boys and Oath Keepers.” New York Times, January 19, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/19/us/proud-boys-oath-keepers-meeting.html

[175] Wendling, Mike. “Far-right groups had racism rift before Capitol riot.” BBC, December 22, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-64071724

[176] U.S. House of Representatives, Select Committee To Investigate the January 6th Attack on the U.S. Capitol. Deposition of Henry Tarrio. February 4, 2022, Washington, DC. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-J6-TRANSCRIPT-CTRL0000042157/pdf/GPO-J6-TRANSCRIPT-CTRL0000042157.pdf

[177] “Oath Keepers.” Anti-Defamation League. November 3, 2020. https://www.adl.org/resources/backgrounders/oath-keepers.

[178] Feuer, Alan and Katie Benner. “More Oath Keeper Suspects Charged in Capitol Riot Plot.” The New York Times. February 19, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/19/us/politics/oath-keepers-capitol-rio….

[179] Feuer, Alan and Katie Benner. “More Oath Keeper Suspects Charged in Capitol Riot Plot.” The New York Times. February 19, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/19/us/politics/oath-keepers-capitol-rio….

[180] “United States of America v. Thomas Edward Caldwell, Donovan Ray Crowl, Jessica Watkins, Sandra Parker, Bennie Parker, Graydon Young, Laura Steele, Kelly Meggs, and Connie Meggs.” United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Indictment filed February 19, 2021. https://int.nyt.com/data/documenttools/oath-keepers-superseding-indictm….

[181] Lucas, Ryan. “House Democrat Sues Trump, Giuliani And 2 Far-Right Groups Over Capitol Riot.” NPR. February 16, 2021. https://www.npr.org/2021/02/16/968374210/house-democrat-sues-trump-giul….

[182] Mangan, Dan. “10 more Congress members join lawsuit accusing Trump, Giuliani, Proud Boys, Oath Keepers of Capitol riot conspiracy.” CNBC. April 7, 2021. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/04/07/capitol-riot-congress-members-sue-trump….

[183] Carlisle, Zac. “Thompson dismissed Jan. 6 lawsuit to avoid 'appearance of a conflict.’” WTVA 9 News. July 21, 2021. https://www.wtva.com/news/local/thompson-dismissed-jan-6-lawsuit-to-avo….

[184] “BREAKING: Historic Ruling Denies immunity for Donald Trump in Capitol Insurrection Lawsuit.” NAACP. February 18, 2022. https://naacp.org/articles/breaking-historic-ruling-denies-immunity-don….

[185] Lee, Ella. “Stewart Rhodes, Oath Keepers founder, found guilty of seditious conspiracy. What that means.” USA Today. November 30, 2022. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2022/11/30/stewart-rhodes-…. ; “Leader of Oath Keepers and 10 Other Individuals Indicted in Federal Court for Seditious Conspiracy and Other Offenses Related to U.S. Capitol Breach.” United States Department of Justice. January 13, 2022. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/leader-oath-keepers-and-10-other-individ….

[186] “Leader of Oath Keepers and 10 Other Individuals Indicted in Federal Court for Seditious Conspiracy and Other Offenses Related to U.S. Capitol Breach.” United States Department of Justice. January 13, 2022. https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/leader-oath-keepers-and-10-other-individ….

[187] Dickinson, Tim. “Oath Keepers Lawyer Takes Over as Acting Leader of Militia With Stewart Rhodes in Jail.” Rolling Stone. January 14, 2022. https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/kellye-sorelle-oath….

[188] Friedman, Dan. “FBI Seizes Oath Keeper Lawyer’s Phone in ‘Seditious Conspiracy’ Investigation.” Mother Jones. September 9, 2021. https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2021/09/fbi-oath-keepers-lawyer-ph….

[189] Feuer, Alan and Ken Bensinger. “Top Lawyer for Oath Keepers Is Arrested in Connection With Jan. 6 Attack.” The New York Times. September 1, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/01/us/politics/oath-keepers-lawyer-arre….

[190] Lybrand, Holmes. “Oath Keepers lawyer Kellye SoRelle pleads not guilty to Jan 6 charges.” CNN. September 9, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/2022/09/09/politics/oath-keeper-lawyer-kellye-sorel….

[191] Dickinson, Tim. “The Seditious Conspiracy Thickens: Third Oath Keeper Pleads Guilty to Jan. 6 Plot, Links Stewart Rhodes to Trump Inner Circle.” Rolling Stone. May 4, 2022. https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-news/third-guilty-plea-s….

[192] Reilly, Ryan J. and Daniel Barnes. “Oath Keepers founder found guilty of seditious conspiracy in Jan. 6 case.” NBC News. November 29, 2022. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/29/oath-keepers-founder-found-guilty-of-se….

[193] Feuer, Alan and Zach Montague. “Former Oath Keeper Says Militia Planned to Use ‘Any Means Necessary’ on Jan. 6.” The New York Times. October 18, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/18/us/politics/oath-keepers-militia-jan….

[194] Kunzelman, Michael, Lindsay Whitehurst, and Alanna Durkin Richer. “Oath Keepers jury home for weekend after deliberations start.” The Associated Press. November 22, 2022. https://apnews.com/article/capitol-siege-biden-donald-trump-conspiracy-….

[195] Reilly, Ryan J. and Daniel Barnes. “Oath Keeper testifies about massive gun pile stashed in hotel on the eve of Jan. 6.” NBC News. October 12, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/oath-keeper-testifi…. ; Feuer, Alan. “Outcome in Oath Keepers Trial Could Hold Lessons for Coming Jan. 6 cases.” NBC News. November 30, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/30/us/politics/oath-keepers-stewart-rho….

[196] Durkin, Alanna Richer and Lindsay Whitehurst. “Trump at center of Oath Keepers novel defense in Jan. 6 case.” The Associated Press. October 1, 2022. https://apnews.com/article/capitol-siege-riots-donald-trump-conspiracy-….

[197] Klawans, Justin. “Who are the Oath Keepers?” The Week. December 16, 2022. https://theweek.com/oath-keepers/1018848/who-are-the-oath-keepers.

[198] Hannah Rabinowitz and Katelyn Polantz, “Oath Keepers leader Stewart Rhodes sentenced to 18 years in prison for plot to keep Trump in power,” CNN, May 25, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/25/politics/oath-keepers-sentencing-stewart….

[199] “Oath Keepers leader Stewart Rhodes sentenced to 18 years,” Al Jazeera, May 25, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/5/25/oath-keepers-leader-stewart-rh….

[200] Reilly, Ryan J. and Daniel Barnes. “Two Oath Keepers, including founder, convicted of seditious conspiracy in Jan. 6 case.” NBC News. November 29, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/justice-department/oath-keepers-verdic….

[201] Kunzelman, Michael and Alanna Durkin Richard. “2nd Oath Keepers Jan. 6 sedition trial to get underway.” The Associated Press. December 12, 2022. https://apnews.com/article/biden-us-department-of-justice-united-states….

[202] Rabinowitz, Hannah and Holmes Lybrand. “Second Oath Keepers sedition trial presents new challenges for prosecutors.” CNN. December 6, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/06/politics/oath-keeper-second-trial/index….

[203] Rabinowitz, Hannah. “Second seditious conspiracy trial against Oath Keepers begins with opening statements.” CNN News. December 12, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/12/politics/second-oath-keepers-trial-begin…. ; Lynch, Sarah N. “U.S. tells jury Oath Keepers plotted to use force to keep Trump in office.” Reuters. December 12, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/legal/us-tells-jury-oath-keepers-plotted-use-fo….

[204] Kunzelman, Michael and Alanna Durkin Richard. “Four Oath Keepers convicted of Jan. 6 seditious conspiracy.” The Associated Press. January 23, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/oath-keepers-seditious-conspiracy-conviction….

[205] Office of Public Affairs, “Four Additional Oath Keepers Sentenced for Seditious Conspiracy Related to U.S. Capitol Breach,” U.S. Department of Justice, June 2, 2023, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/four-additional-oath-keepers-sentenced-s….

[206]U.S. Department of Justice, U.S. Attorney’s Office, District of Columbia, “Four Members of the Oath Keepers Sentenced,” September 1, 2023.  https://www.justice.gov/usao-dc/pr/four-members-oath-keepers-sentenced-…

[207] Kyle Cheney and Josh Gerstein, “Justice Department appeals Jan. 6 prison sentences for Stewart Rhodes, Oath Keepers," Politico, July 12, 2023, https://www.politico.com/news/2023/07/12/doj-appeals-oath-keepers-sente….

[208] Katelyn Polantz and Hannah Rabinowitz, “Justice Department appealing prison sentences given to convicted Oath Keepers members,” CNN, July 12, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/12/politics/doj-appeals-oath-keepers-senten….

[209] Katelyn Polantz and Hannah Rabinowitz, “Justice Department appealing prison sentences given to convicted Oath Keepers members,” CNN, July 12, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/2023/07/12/politics/doj-appeals-oath-keepers-senten….

[210] Sherrill, Thomas. “Local Oath Keepers split from national following Jan. 6.” The News Reporter. February 9, 2021. https://nrcolumbus.com/local-oath-keepers-split-from-national-following….

[211] Sherrill, Thomas. “Local Oath Keepers split from national following Jan. 6.” The News Reporter. February 9, 2021. https://nrcolumbus.com/local-oath-keepers-split-from-national-following….

[212] Sherrill, Thomas. “Local Oath Keepers split from national following Jan. 6.” The News Reporter. February 9, 2021. https://nrcolumbus.com/local-oath-keepers-split-from-national-following….

[213] Sherrill, Thomas. “After indictment of Oath Keepers founder, former N.C. head again repudiates national group.” The News Reporter. January 28, 2022. https://www.nrcolumbus.com/news/elections/after-indictment-of-oath-keep….

[214] East, Andy. “A local connection: Indiana Oath Keepers confirms group in Bartholomew County.” The Columbus Republic. January 31, 2021. http://www.therepublic.com/2021/01/31/a-local-connection-indiana-oath-k….

[215] East, Andy. “A local connection: Indiana Oath Keepers confirms group in Bartholomew County.” The Columbus Republic. January 31, 2021. http://www.therepublic.com/2021/01/31/a-local-connection-indiana-oath-k….

[216] Stall, Hampton, and Aaron Wolfson. “Actor Profile: Oath Keepers.” ACLED Analysis, Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project. https://acleddata.com/acleddatanew/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Actor-Profile-Oath-Keepers_June2021.pdf

[217] Owen, Tess. “Armed Fringe Groups Are Gearing Up to ‘Protect’ Midterm Ballot Dropboxes.” Vice News, October 6, 2022. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dy7wvj/lions-of-liberty-oath-keepers-midterm-ballot-boxes

[218] Yavapai County Preparedness Team. Accessed October 1, 2023. https://ycpt.org

[219] Yavapai County Preparedness Team. “About YCPT.” Accessed October 1, 2023. https://ycpt.org/about-ycpt/ 

[220] Owen, Tess. “Armed Fringe Groups Are Gearing Up to ‘Protect’ Midterm Ballot Dropboxes.” Vice News, October 6, 2022. https://www.vice.com/en/article/dy7wvj/lions-of-liberty-oath-keepers-midterm-ballot-boxes

[221] Simonelli, Isaac Stone. “Experts warn of extremist push to expand sheriffs’ role in elections.” AZ Mirror, October 24, 2022. https://www.azmirror.com/2022/10/24/experts-warn-of-extremist-push-to-expand-sheriffs-role-in-elections/

[222] Macdonald-Evoy, Jerod. “Two lawsuits filed to stop intimidation at ballot drop boxes.” AZ Mirror, October 25, 2022. https://www.azmirror.com/2022/10/25/two-lawsuits-filed-to-stop-intimidation-at-ballot-drop-boxes/ ; U.S. Department of Justice. Statement of Interest in League of Women Voters of Arizona v. Lions of Liberty.” Filed October 31, 2022. https://www.justice.gov/d9/case-documents/attachments/2022/10/31/statement_of_interest-_leage_of_women_voters_v._lions_of_liberty.pdf

[223] Bensinger, Ken. “Justice Dept. Questions Drop Box Monitoring in Arizona.” The New York Times, November 9, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/31/us/politics/justice-department-arizona-drop-boxes.html

Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.

The Oath Keepers does not have an extensive history of violence resulting in human casualties. This does not mean that the group is nonviolent, however. OK has often carried out operations that implicitly or explicitly threaten violence, such as participation in armed standoffs with federal agents and protesters. Most notably, the group participated in the storming of the U.S. Capitol on January 6, 2021. OK is also known for providing armed security, such as during unrest associated with protests against police brutality. Details on these operations are not included here but can be found in the Narrative Summary and the Targets and Tactics sections.

April 2014: Members of the Oath Keepers, including OK leader Stewart Rhodes, joined activists from around the United States in an armed standoff with the U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) agents in Bunkerville, Nevada, in support of rancher Cliven Bundy. The militants aimed to prevent BLM from confiscating Bundy’s cattle due to his refusal to pay grazing fees. This was OK’s first major operation (no casualties).[1]

April 2015: After being cited by U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) for unauthorized mining activity at the Sugar Pine Mine, Rich Barclay and George Backes requested security support from the Oath Keepers. Members from around the country came for a weekslong armed patrol of the site to defy BLM (no casualties).[2]

January 2016 - February 2016: Unsanctioned by the Oath Keepers national leadership, some members (exact number unknown) participated in the occupation of Malheur Wildlife Refuge in Oregon to protest the conviction of two men for arson for burning brush on federal land. The OK national leadership approved the establishment of an armed patrol to serve as a buffer between the occupiers and federal agents (1 killed, unknown wounded).[3]

January 6, 2021: The Oath Keepers participated in the storming of the U.S. Capitol along with members of other like-minded organizations, including the Three Percenters, Proud Boys, adherents of the QAnon conspiracy theory, and other supporters of then-U.S. President Donald Trump in an attempt to halt the certification of Joe Biden’s victory in the 2020 presidential election. The assault led to the deaths of three police officers and four protesters;140 police officers were injured, while the number of rioters injured is unknown (7 killed, at least 140 wounded).[4] 

[1] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 46-47.

[2] Wiles, Tay. “Sugar Pine Mine, the other standoff.” High Country News. February 2, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/issues/48.2/showdown-at-sugar-pine-mine

[3] Jackson, Sam. Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group. New York: Columbia University Press, 2020: 45-57.

[4] Cameron, Chris. “These Are the People Who Died in Connection with the Capitol Riot.” The New York Times. January 5, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/05/us/politics/jan-6-capitol-deaths.html. ; Jackman, Tom. “Police union says 140 officers injured in Capitol riot.” The Washington Post. January 27, 2021. https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/public-safety/police-union-says-14….