MMP: Liwa al-Tawhid

Liwa al-Tawhid

Liwa al-Tawhid (the Tawhid Brigade) was an Aleppo-based militant group that fought the Assad Regime from 2012 to 2014.

Key Statistics

2012

First Recorded Activity

2012

First Attack

2016

Profile Last Updated

Profile Contents

Overview

Narrative of the Organization's History

Overview Overview

Organization

Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations

Organization Organization

Strategy

Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics

Strategy Strategy

Major Attacks

First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks

Major Attacks Major Attacks

Interactions

Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences

Interactions Interactions

Maps

Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time

Maps Maps

Contact MMP

Send a message to the Mapping Militants team.

mappingmilitants@lists.stanford.edu

Download Full Profile as PDF

Last updated July 2016

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How to Cite

Mapping Militant Organizations. “Liwa al-Tawhid”. Stanford University. Last modified July 2016. <https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/liwa-al-tawhid>

Organizational Overview

Formed: July 2012

Disbanded: July 2014

First Attack: July 29, 2012: Liwa al-Tawhid and other opposition forces seized portions of Aleppo from the Assad Regime in July 2012. Liwa al-Tawhid’s commander Abdel Qader Saleh claimed that the group controlled more than 40% of the city of Aleppo’s neighborhoods. (unknown casualties).[1]

Last Attack: March 9, 2014: Liwa al-Tawhid and Al-Nusra pushed IS out of Azaz, a crucial boarder town with Turkey in Aleppo Province (unknown casualties).[2]

Executive Summary

Liwa al-Tawhid (the Tawhid Brigade) was an Aleppo-based militant group that was formed by several small opposition brigades to fight the Assad Regime in July 2012. The group’s goal was to replace the Assad Regime with a moderate Islamic state that had a basis in Shariah law, but included civilian rule, elections, and protection for minorities. Liwa al-Tawhid rose to prominence in July 2012 after becoming one of the first opposition groups to control territory in Aleppo. It was initially considered a member of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) and participated in the FSA-linked Syrian Islamic Front umbrella organization from January 2013 until November 2013, when Liwa al-Tawhid joined the Islamic Front umbrella group. Liwa al-Tawhid also cooperated with the Islamic State (IS) until January 2014, when it began targeting IS and temporarily drove IS out of the city of Aleppo. In July 2014, Liwa al-Tawhid, Ahrar al-Sham, and other former members of the Islamic Front, which dissolved in mid-2014, agreed to merge their Aleppo-based fighters and operate under the name Islamic Front. Since this merger, there have been conflicting reports if Liwa al-Tawhid is still conducting operations independently.

Group Narrative

Liwa al-Tawhid (the Tawhid Brigade) was an Aleppo-based militant group that was formed by several small opposition brigades to fight the Assad Regime in July 2012.[3] The group’s goal was to replace the Assad Regime with a moderate Islamic state that had a basis in Shariah law, but included civilian rule, elections, and protection for minorities.[4] Liwa al-Tawhid rose to prominence in July 2012 after becoming one of the first opposition groups to control territory in Aleppo.[5] One of its two co-founders, Abdel Qader Saleh, also became a well-known revolution figurehead, especially in Aleppo.[6]

Liwa al-Tawhid initially pledged allegiance to the Free Syrian Army (FSA), and it supported the FSA’s creation of a Supreme Military Council (SMC) in December 2012 and joined the Syrian Islamic Liberation Front (SILF), an SMC-linked umbrella organization, in January 2013. However, Liwa al-Tawhid often acted independently of FSA-affiliated groups.[7] On September 23, 2013, it distanced itself from the FSA and SMC by joining the Islamic Coalition, a political group that called for the opposition to the Assad Regime to be run only by groups fighting inside Syria, and that opposed the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, which is a political group that merged with the SMC’s political wing.[8] In November 2013, Liwa al-Tawhid officially left the SILF in order to join the Islamic Front umbrella group.[9]

In 2013, Liwa al-Tawhid was well respected amongst opposition groups and successfully negotiated a ceasefire between IS and the Free Syrian Army (FSA) in Azaz, a city in the province of Aleppo.[10] The group also cooperated with IS to fight the Kurdish People’s Protection Units in late 2013.[11] However, Liwa al-Tawhid along with its Islamic Front allies began targeting IS in early 2014.[12] Clashes erupted between IS and Liwa al-Tawhid in January 2014 when Liwa al-Tawhid temporarily drove IS out of the city of Aleppo. "Summary Executions, Torture, Makeshift Courts in Syria: UN Reveals Horrific Details." RT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016. In response to growing hostility with Liwa al-Tawhid and other militant groups, IS began targeting the leaders of opposition groups and killed a prominent Liwa al-Tawhid member, Adnan Bakour. Al-Qaeda fighters kill Syrian rebel leaders.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 2 Feb. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016 After these attacks, Liwa al-Tawhid continued targeting IS, and in 2014 a member of the group called its fight with IS “more severe than any fight with the regime.”[13]

In July 2014, Liwa al-Tawhid, Ahrar al-Sham, and other former members of the Islamic Front, which dissolved in mid-2014, agreed to merge their Aleppo-based fighters and operate under the name Islamic Front, not to be confused with the Islamic Front umbrella group. Since this merger, there have been conflicting reports if Liwa al-Tawhid is still operating independently. In March 2016, Liwa al-Tawhid allegedly published a video that showcased its three man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS), which are shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles that are often used by opposition forces to target Assad Regime planes.[14]

[1] Pannell, Ian. "Syria: Fear and Hunger amid Battle for Aleppo." BBC News. N.p., 29 July 2012. Web. 01 Aug. 2014

[2] Beals, Emma. “Sigh of relief after ISIL retreat.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 9 Mar. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

[3] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[4] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[5] Sinjab, Lina. "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[6] "Top Syrian Rebel Commander Dies." BBC News. N.p., 18 Nov. 2013. Web. 30 July 2014.

[7] Lund, Aron. "Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 July 2014.; Sinjab, Lina. "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[8] “Key Syrian rebels reject National Coalition.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Sep. 2013. Web. 7 Jul. 2016

[9] “Guide to the Syria rebels.” BBC News. BBC News, 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 8 Jul. 2016

[10] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[11] Al-Tamini, Aymenn Jawad. “The Dawn of Freedom Brgiades: Analysis and Interview.” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 2 Oct. 2014. Web. 11 Jul. 2016.

[12] Barnard, Anne, and Rick Gladstone. “Rebel Infighting Spreads to an Eastern Syrian City.” New York Times. N.p., 6 Jan. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

[13] Gilbert, Ben. “Rebel infighting kills thousands of Syrians.” Al Jazeera America. Al Jazeera, 28 Feb. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

[14] "U.S. Tanks in Putin's Backyard; Stealth Planes to South China Sea." Foreign Policy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.; “The U.S. Wants To Design Safer Anti-Aircraft Missiles for Syria's Rebels." Foreign Policy The US Wants To Design Safer AntiAircraft Missiles for Syrias Rebels Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

Organizational StructureLeadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations

Leadership

Abdul-Aziz Salameh (July 2012-July 2014) Salameh, also known as Hajji Anadan and Abu Jumaa, was one of Liwa al-Tawhid’s two founders. Salameh commanded Liwa al-Tawhid’s political affairs. After Liwa al-Tawhid merged to form the Islamic Front in Aleppo, Salameh became the Islamic Front’s commander. Salameh was eventually elected to command the Levantine Front, a group that includes the Islamic Front, not to be confused with the Islamic Front umbrella group.[1]

Abdel Qader Saleh (July 2012-November 2013): Saleh, also known as “Hajji Marea,” was a former businessman and a popular figure within the Syrian rebellion. Saleh was one of Liwa al-Tawhid’s two founders and commanded its military affairs. He was officially ranked under Salameh, but some analysts considered Saleh to be Liwa al-Tawhid’s de facto leader. In addition to his role with Liwa al-Tawhid, Saleh was involved in the Free Syrian Army’s Supreme Military Council command structure, where he served as the Assistant Deputy to the Commander-in-Chief for the Northern Region. Saleh was killed in a regime airstrike that also killed several other Liwa al-Tawhid leaders. Liwa al-Tawhid did not disclose the name of Saleh’s successor due to security concerns.[2]

Youssef al-Abbas (unknown-2013): Abbas, also known as Abu al-Tayyeb, served as the chief of either intelligence or finance. He was killed in the same airstrike that killed Abdel Qader Saleh.[3]

[1] Lund, Aron. "The Levant Front: Can Aleppo's Rebels Unite?" Syria in Crisis. The Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. 26 Dec. 2014. Web. 12 Jul. 2016.; Lund, Aron. "Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 July 2014.; Lund, Aron. “The Levant Front: Can Aleppo’s Rebels Unite?” Syria in Crisis. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 26 Dec. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

[2] Lund, Aron. "The Non-State Militant Landscape in Syria." CTC Sentinel. The Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, 27 Aug. 2013. Web. 28 July 2014.; Lund, Aron. “The Death of Abdelqader Saleh.” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 17 Nov. 2013. Web. 7 Jul. 2016.; Lund, Aron. "Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 July 2014.

[3] "Top Syrian Rebel Commander Dies." BBC News. N.p., 18 Nov. 2013. Web. 30 July 2014. "Syrian Air Raid Kills Rebel Commander in Aleppo: Activists." Reuters. N.p., 14 Nov. 2013. Web. 01 Aug. 2014.

Name Changes

There are no recorded name changes for this group.

Size Estimates

2012: 8,000 (The Guardian)[1]
2013: 11,000 (Institute for the Study of War)[2]
2013: 8,000-10,000 (BBC)[3]
2014: 8,000-10,000 (Human Rights Watch)[4]

[1] Chulov, Martin. "France Funding Syrian Rebels in New Push to Oust Assad." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 2012. Web. 17 May 2016.

[2] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[3] Sinjab, Lina. "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[4] “Maybe We Live and Maybe We Die: Recruitment and Use of Children by Armed Groups in Syria.” Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch, 22 Jun. 2014. Web. 7 Jul. 2016.

Resources

Liwa al-Tawhid received resources from France, Qatar, and Turkey. In 2012, the group used money it received from France to buy ammunition.[1] Qatar and Turkey also financially supported Liwa al-Tawhid and allegedly provided the group with advanced weapons such as anti-tank missiles.[2] It is unclear when these countries began funding Liwa al-Tawhid.

Liwa al-Tawhid reportedly had QW-1 missiles, which are made by China and used by Iran. A spokesperson for the group reported that the militants captured the weapons from Syrian government forces.[3] In March 2016, Liwa al-Tawhid allegedly published a video that showcased its three man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS), which are shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missiles that are often used by the opposition forces to target Assad Regime planes.[4]

In addition, Liwa al-Tawhid was among a host of Syrian militant groups that employed child soldiers.[5]

[1] Chulov, Martin. "France Funding Syrian Rebels in New Push to Oust Assad." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 2012. Web. 17 May 2016.

[2] Spencer, Richard. "US-backed Militia Groups Now Fighting Each Other in Syria." The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group, n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[3] " U.S. Tanks in Putin's Backyard; Stealth Planes to South China Sea." Foreign Policy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[4] " U.S. Tanks in Putin's Backyard; Stealth Planes to South China Sea." Foreign Policy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.; “The U.S. Wants To Design Safer Anti-Aircraft Missiles for Syria's Rebels." Foreign Policy The US Wants To Design Safer AntiAircraft Missiles for Syrias Rebels Comments. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[5] “Maybe We Live and Maybe We Die: Recruitment and Use of Children by Armed Groups in Syria.” Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch, 22 Jun. 2014. Web. 7 Jul. 2016.

Geographic Locations

Disclaimer: This is a partial list of where the militant organization has bases and where it operates. This does not include information on where the group conducts major attacks or has external influence.

Liwa al-Tawhid was based in Aleppo Province and in 2012, it claimed to control 40% of the city of Aleppo’s neighborhoods.[1] Additionally, it conducted operations near Damascus and Idlib.[2]

[1] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.; Pannell, Ian. "Syria: Fear and Hunger amid Battle for Aleppo." BBC News. N.p., 29 July 2012. Web. 01 Aug. 2014.

[2] Roggio, Bill. "Al Nusrah Front Claims Joint Operations, including a Suicide Assault, with Syrian Rebel Groups." Long War Journal. Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 29 June 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2014.; Roggio, Bill. "Al Nusrah Front Launches Joint Assaults with Numerous Syrian Rebel Groups." Long War Journal. Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 31 July 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2014.

StrategyIdeology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets and Tactics

Ideology and Goals

Liwa al-Tawhid sought to replace the Assad Regime with a moderate Islamic state that had a basis in Shariah law, but included civilian rule, elections, and protection for minorities.[1]

[1] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

Political Activities

Liwa al-Tawhid was hostile to negotiations with the Assad Regime. On September 23, 2013, it joined the Islamic Coalition, a political group that called for the opposition to the Assad Regime to be run only by groups fighting inside Syria and opposed the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.[1] Liwa al-Tawhid subsequently left the Free Syrian Army’s Supreme Military Council, which continued to support the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces’ negotiations with the Assad Regime.[2] Additionally, the group claimed that the Geneva II peace conference, a UN-sponsored conference that included the Assad Regime and the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, was an attempt to “extend the life of the [Assad] Regime” or replace it with a similar regime.[3]

[1] “Key Syrian rebels reject National Coalition.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Sep. 2013. Web. 7 Jul. 2016.

[2] Lund, Aron. “Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade.” Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 7 Jul. 2016.

[3] Lund, Aron. “Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade.” Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 7 Jul. 2016; “What is the Geneva II conference on Syria?” BBC News. BBC, 22 Jan. 2014. Web. 29 Jun, 2016.

Targets and Tactics

Like many opposition groups, Liwa al-Tawhid uses IEDs and Kalashnikov rifles in battles against the Syrian army.[1]

[1] Pannell, Ian. "Syria: Fear and Hunger amid Battle for Aleppo." BBC News. N.p., 29 July 2012. Web. 01 Aug. 2014.

Major Attacks

Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization's history. It is not a comphrensive listing, but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.

July 29, 2012: Liwa al-Tawhid and other opposition forces seized portions of Aleppo from the Assad Regime in July 2012. Liwa al-Tawhid’s commander Abdel Qader Saleh claimed that the group controlled more than 40% of the city of Aleppo’s neighborhoods. (unknown casualties).[1]

April 22, 2013: Liwa al-Tawhid and Jabhat al-Nusra (Al-Nusra) cooperated with the Nasser Salahuddin Brigade, Dera’ al-Assima, and Liwa al-Habib al Mustafa in a series of attacks against Syrian army units and outposts in the Damascus countryside. According to Al-Nusra, the militants destroyed several tanks and killed over 150 Syrian soldiers. (150+ killed, unknown wounded).[2]

May 2013: Liwa al-Tawhid participated in a joint offensive with multiple opposition groups, including Al-Nusra and Ahrar al-Sham, against Assad Regime military camps in the Idlib countryside. (unknown casualties).[3]

January 2014: Liwa al-Tawhid drove the Islamic State (IS) out of the city of Aleppo. During its retreat, IS reportedly shot and killed the detainees it was holding in a hospital basement. (40-50 killed, unknown wounded).[4]

March 9, 2014: Liwa al-Tawhid and Al-Nusra pushed IS out of Azaz, a crucial boarder town with Turkey in the province of Aleppo. (unknown casualties).[5]

[1] Pannell, Ian. "Syria: Fear and Hunger amid Battle for Aleppo." BBC News. N.p., 29 July 2012. Web. 01 Aug. 2014.

[3] Roggio, Bill. "Al Nusrah Front Launches Joint Assaults with Numerous Syrian Rebel Groups." Long War Journal. Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 31 July 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2014. <http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2013/07/al_nusrah_front_laun_1.p…;.

[4] "Summary Executions, Torture, Makeshift Courts in Syria: UN Reveals Horrific Details." RT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[5] Beals, Emma. “Sigh of relief after ISIL retreat.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 9 Mar. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

InteractionsForeign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors, and External Influences

Designated/Listed

Liwa al-Tawhid was not a designated terrorist organization.

Since December 2015, the UN Security Council has been trying to assemble a list of terrorist groups in Syria. Russia, Lebanon, Egypt, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates support classifying Liwa al-Tawhid as a terrorist group, but they have not been able to achieve a unanimous consensus.[1]

[1] Miles, Tom and Irish, John. “Syrian terrorist list produces 163 names and no agreement.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 17 Feb. 2016. Web. 28 May. 2016.; “Countries List Of Armed Groups Acting In Syria.” Reuters. Thomas Reuters, 2016. Web. 7 May. 2016

Community Relations

There is no available information on Liwa al-Tawhid’s community relationships.

Relationships with Other Groups

While no reports indicate a formal affiliation with Al Qaeda (AQ), Liwa al-Tawhid coordinated attacks with AQ affiliate Jabhat al-Nusra.[1]

Liwa al-Tawhid initially cooperated with the Islamic State (IS) and successfully negotiated a ceasefire between IS and the Free Syrian Army (FSA) in Azaz, a city in the province of Aleppo, in September 2013.[2] However, Liwa al-Tawhid along with its Islamic Front umbrella group allies began targeting IS in early 2014.[3] Clashes erupted between IS and Liwa al-Tawhid in January 2014 when Liwa al-Tawhid drove IS out of the city of Aleppo.[4] In response to growing hostility with Liwa al-Tawhid and other militant groups, IS began targeting the leaders of opposition groups and killed prominent Liwa al-Tawhid member Adnan Bakour.[5]

Liwa al-Tawhid initially pledged allegiance to the Free Syrian Army (FSA), and it supported the FSA’s creation of a Supreme Military Council (SMC) in December 2012 and joined the Syrian Islamic Liberation Front (SILF), an SMC-linked umbrella organization, in January 2013. However, Liwa al-Tawhid often acted independently of FSA-affiliated groups.[6] It began to distance itself from the FSA and SMC when the SMC’s political wing, the Syrian National Council (SNC), joined the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.[7] On September 23, 2013, Liwa al-Tawhid joined the Islamic Coalition, a political group that called for the opposition to the Assad Regime to be run only by groups fighting inside Syria and opposed the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.[8] Liwa al-Tawhid subsequently left the SMC, which continued to support the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces’ negotiations with the Assad Regime.[9] In November 2013, Liwa al-Tawhid left the SILF in order to join the Islamic Front.[10]

Liwa al-Tawhid was an active member in the Islamic Front, an umbrella group of 40,000-70,000 fighters that sought to replace the Assad Regime with an Islamic government.[11] Liwa al-Tawhid helped found the Islamic Front in December 2013, and Liwa al-Tawhid’s Abu Omar Hureitan was appointed as the Deputy Leader of the Islamic Front’s Shura council.[12] After the Islamic Front umbrella group collapsed in mid-2014 due to disagreements between Ahrar al-Sham and Jaysh al-Islam, Liwa al-Tawhid merged with other former Islamic Front units in Aleppo and continued operating under the name Islamic Front, not to be confused with the Islamic Front umbrella group.[13] While the Islamic Front umbrella group dissolved, many of its member groups’ fighters began defecting to IS. In particular, multiple Liwa al-Tawhid brigades either became defunct or began cooperating with IS. One of the most prominent former Liwa al-Tawhid battalions to cooperate with IS is the Manbij Martyrs Battalion.[14]

[1] Roggio, Bill. "Al Nusrah Front Claims Joint Operations, including a Suicide Assault, with Syrian Rebel Groups." Long War Journal. Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 29 June 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2014.

[2] Syzbala, Valerie. A Power Move by Syria's Rebel Forces. Rep. Institute for the Study of War, 22 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[3] Barnard, Anne, and Rick Gladstone. “Rebel Infighting Spreads to an Eastern Syrian City.” New York Times. N.p., 6 Jan. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016.

[4] "Summary Executions, Torture, Makeshift Courts in Syria: UN Reveals Horrific Details." RT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[5] Al-Qaeda fighters kill Syrian rebel leaders.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 2 Feb. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016

[6] Lund, Aron. "Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 July 2014.; Sinjab, Lina. "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 24 July 2014.

[7] Roggio, Bill. "Free Syrian Army Units Ally with Al Qaeda, Reject Syrian National Coalition, and Call for Sharia." Long War Journal. Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 26 Sept. 2013. Web. 04 Aug. 2014. “The Syrian National Council.” Syria in Crisis. Carnegie Foundation For International Peace. Web. 8 Jul. 2016

[8] “Key Syrian rebels reject National Coalition.” Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, 25 Sep. 2013. Web. 7 Jul. 2016

[9] Lund, Aron. “Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade.” Carnegie Endowment For International Peace. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 7 Jul. 2016

[10] “Guide to the Syria rebels.” BBC News. BBC News, 13 Dec. 2013. Web. 8 Jul. 2016

[11] Lund, Aron. The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 1: Structure and Support." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 14 Jan. 2014. Web. 01 Jul. 2014.; Hassan, Hassan. “Front to Back.” Foreign Policy. The FP Group, 4 Mar. 2014. Web. 7 May, 2016.

[12] Lund, Aron. "Fighting in Aleppo, Resisting Geneva: An Interview With the Tawhid Brigade." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 2 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 July 2014.; "Guide to the Syrian Rebels." BBC News. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 May 2016.

[13] Lund, Aron. “The Levant Front: Can Aleppo’s Rebels Unite?” Syria in Crisis. Carnegie Endowment For International Peace, 26 Dec. 2014. Web. 8 Jul. 2016

[14] Al-Tamini, Aymenn Jawad. “The Dawn of Freedom Brgiades: Analysis and Interview.” Syria Comment. Joshua Landis, 2 Oct. 2014. Web. 11 Jul. 2016.

State Sponsors and External Influences

Liwa al-Tawhid received funding from France, Qatar, and Turkey. Additionally, some analysts claim that Saudi Arabia played a large role in establishing the Islamic Front, an umbrella group that included Liwa al-Tawhid and had 40,000-70,000 members at its peak, which made it Syria’s largest alliance of opposition forces.[1]

[1] Hussein, Tam. "The Ansar Al-Sham Battalions." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 24 Mar. 2014. Web. 07 Aug. 2014.; Lund, Aron. The Politics of the Islamic Front, Part 1: Structure and Support." Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. N.p., 14 Jan. 2014. Web. 01 Jul. 2014.

MapsThe project develops a series of interactive diagrams that "map" the relationships among groups and show how those relationships change over time. The user can change the map settings to display different features (e.g. leadership changes), adjust the time scale, and trace individual groups.