Narrative
Narrative of the Organization's History
Narrative of the Organization's History
Leadership, Name Changes, Size Estimates, Resources, Geographic Locations
Ideology, Aims, Political Activities, Targets, and Tactics
First Attacks, Largest Attacks, Notable Attacks
Foreign Designations and Listings, Community Relations, Relations with Other Groups, State Sponsors and External Influences
Mapping relationships with other militant groups over time in regional maps
Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada is a Shiite Islamist group that recognizes Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei as its marja’ – a position of intellectual and political leadership within the Shiite community held by an eminent cleric.[55] As such, KSS maintains a close ideological relationship with the Iranian theocracy and follows a Khomeinist ideology that draws upon the doctrines formulated by Ayatollah Khomeini, who established Iran’s post-revolutionary theocratic government. KSS shares much ideologically with other Shiite Islamist, Iranian-aligned groups within the PMF such as KH, AAH, and the Badr Organization.[56] Despite the considerable ideological overlap, KSS differs slightly from other Shiite Islamist groups in its immediate focus: KSS’s stated purpose is to protect Shia shrines and Mosques “around the globe” and initially dedicated itself to the protection of the Zaynab Shrine in southern Damascus.[57]
KSS is vehemently anti-American and has repeatedly accused the U.S. of funding and backing IS and engineering crises in the region.[58] Despite an alignment of goals during the fight against IS, KSS continued to oppose the U.S. following the jihadist group’s territorial defeat and continued to threaten American diplomatic and military installations in the country. In March 2020, KSS’ presumed leader Ala al-Walai stated that the group was prepared for any “American strikes on the [PMF],” and that the “[fasa’il – a term used by Iran-aligned elements of the PMF to distinguish themselves from the broader PMF] are ready to respond to any US aggression on Iraqi sovereignty.”[59]
KSS has called for the liberation of Jerusalem and an end to the occupation of “Zionist and Western” entities in the region.[60] KSS has also stated that it seeks to preserve Iraqi unity and achieve an end to sectarian strife.[61] To this end, KSS – like many other Iranian-backed militant groups – opposes Saudi Arabia’s influence in Iraq and has blamed Riyadh for allegedly supporting jihadist terrorism in Iraq.[62] It also named “anything of Saudi origin,” whether human or material, as a legitimate future target for the group and threatened to “strike and destroy” Saudi Arabia.[63]
KSS, unlike some of its counterparts, does not have an organized political wing and does not appear to have a developed political platform or agenda.[64] However, Falih Khazali has been a member of the Iraqi Parliament since 2014 and has been a member of the Fatah Alliance – a parliamentary bloc comprised of several Iran-aligned militant groups' political wings – since the bloc’s creation in 2018.[65]
In Syria, KSS’s primary targets are Jabhat al-Nusra, elements of the Free Syrian Army, and other militant organizations operating in opposition to the Assad government.[66]
In Iraq, KSS primarily targets the Islamic State. Reports indicate that the group has been involved in several operations against IS in Salah ad-Din province.[67] Additionally, the group has also released statements claiming that it had “fought the U.S. occupation in Iraq.”[68] This claim is unconfirmed, as the group was not founded until May 2013 – almost two years after the U.S. pulled the bulk of its troops out of Iraq.
Very little is known about the weapon systems KSS has at its disposal. Observers speculate that the group was involved in the Syrian government’s chemical weapons attack on East Ghouta in August 2013. Some sources have alleged that government forces used KSS to surround the targeted area to prevent rebels from escaping. This allegation remains unconfirmed by either Syrian government forces or by KSS itself.[69]
KSS is vehemently anti-American and has repeatedly accused the U.S. of funding and backing IS and engineering crises in the region.[70] Although the United States and KSS are both aligned with the Iraqi government and share anti-IS objectives, KSS has refused to cooperate with U.S. forces in Iraq and has threatened to abandon the front lines if more U.S. forces are deployed to the country.[71] Following IS’s defeat in Iraq, KSS has continued to threaten American diplomatic and military installations in the country. In March 2020, nearly three months after a U.S. airstrike killed IRGC-QF commander Qasem Soleimani, Ala al-Walai stated that the group was prepared for any “American strikes on the [PMF],” and that the “[fasa’il – a term used by Iran-aligned elements of the PMF to distinguish themselves from the broader PMF] are ready to respond to any US aggression on Iraqi sovereignty.”[72]
Disclaimer: These are some selected major attacks in the militant organization’s history. It is not a comprehensive listing but captures some of the most famous attacks or turning points during the campaign.
August 21, 2013: KSS is speculated to have been involved in the Syrian government’s chemical weapons attack on the Damascus suburb of East Ghouta. Some sources have alleged that the regime used KSS soldiers to surround the area under attack to prevent rebel forces from escaping the area. Neither the group nor the government has commented on these allegations (350-1,429 killed, unknown wounded).[73]
February 2015: KSS participated in the Syrian government’s anti-rebel offensive in the southern provinces of Daraa and Quneitra. KSS fought alongside regime forces, Hezbollah, the IRGC, and other Shiite militias against elements of the Free Syrian Army and Jabhat al-Nusra (63-400 killed, unknown wounded).[74]
January 2016: KSS fighters clashed with an Iraqi Army unit at a checkpoint in al-Tanoumah near Basra. The circumstances precipitating the firefight, which wounded two Iraqi Army soldiers, remain unclear. Following the clashes, then Prime Minister Abadi responded by sending in an Iraqi armored brigade (0 killed, 2 wounded).[75]
February 15, 2021: KSS is believed to have been involved in a rocket attack on a coalition-run military base at Erbil International Airport, killing a civilian contractor with the coalition and wounding six others.[76] Shortly after that, Kurdish security forces arrested a militia fighter that claimed to have been recruited by KSS to carry out the Erbil attack.[77] A U.S. Defense Department-led investigation into the attack later determined that KSS and Kata’ib Hezbollah bore responsibility.[78] However, a lesser-known armed group named Awliya al-Dam – a potential affiliate of Asa’ib Ahl al-Haq, another Iraqi Shiite militia – had claimed responsibility for the barrage barely three hours after it took place (1 killed, 6 wounded).[79]
Little is known about KSS’s relations with the communities in which it operates.
KSS is aligned closely with other Iranian-backed Iraqi Shiite militias, including Kata’ib Hezbollah (KH), Asa’ib Ahl al-Haq (AAH), and the Badr Organization. KSS has participated in inter-militia summits with these groups, particularly when these meetings seek to form a united position among the militias on issues relevant to the groups’ shared political and military interests.[82]
Additionally, KSS, alongside KH, AAH, and the Badr Organization, is a member of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF).[83] The PMF is an umbrella organization of armed groups comprised primarily of Iraqi Shiite militias, though the organization has significant representation from Iraq’s other ethnic and religious communities. The Iraqi government formed the PMF in 2014 through the unification of existing armed groups under one flag to support the regular Iraqi armed forces’ campaign against the Islamic State (IS) in Iraq. The PMF is a formal part of the Iraqi Armed Forces and is ostensibly under the Iraqi Ministry of Defense’s control. However, most groups retain a significant degree of tactical and strategic independence.[84]
KSS also cooperates with KH and AAH in Syria, where the groups are fighting alongside the Assad regime forces, Hezbollah, and the Iranian IRGC against the IS, Jabhat al-Nusra, the Free Syrian Army, and other militant opposition groups. KSS also cooperates closely with Liwa Abu Fadl al-Abbas (LAFA) and Liwa al-Sayyida Ruqayya (LSR), two other Shiite militant groups that fight alongside the Assad government. Some sources suggest that KSS facilitates troops' recruitment for LAFA and LSR, which are also based around the Shi’a-majority areas near the Zaynab Shrine in southern Damascus.[85] However, other sources describe the groups as separate entities that merely coordinate.[86]
KSS is closely aligned with the Islamic Republic of Iran and is widely considered an Iranian proxy organization. The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps’ Quds Force (IRGC-QF) is believed to provide funding, material assistance, and training to several major Iraqi Shiite militias – including KSS.[87] The IRGC’s historical liaison to its proxies was Major General Qasem Soleimani, who led the IRGC’s Quds Force until his death in January 2020.[88] Moreover, the group holds Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei as its marja’ – a position of intellectual and political leadership within the Shiite community held by an eminent cleric.[89]
KSS is also a member of the Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF), an umbrella organization of armed groups comprised primarily of Iraqi Shiite militias. However, the group has a significant representation of Iraq’s other ethnic and religious communities. The Iraqi government formed the PMF in 2014 through the unification of existing armed groups under one flag to support the regular Iraqi armed forces’ campaign against the Islamic State (IS) in Iraq. The PMF is a formal part of the Iraqi Armed Forces and is ostensibly under the Iraqi Ministry of Defense’s control. However, most groups retain a significant degree of tactical and strategic independence.[90]
[1] "Government Assessment of the Syrian Government's Use of Chemical Weapons on August 21, 2013". The White House, August 30, 2013; “SYRIA: REPORTED CHEMICAL WEAPONS USE" (PDF). U.K. Joint Intelligence Organisation. 29 August 2013; Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[2] Khaleel, Sangar and Jane Arraf. “Rocket Attack in Iraq Kills a U.S. Military Contractor.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
[3] Hiwa, Shilani. “VIDEO: Kurdistan Region releases footage of suspect confessing to Erbil rocket attack.” Kurdistan 24, March 3, 2021; Knights, Michael. “Why Iran’s Proxies Fear Evidence.” The Washington Institute, March 25, 2021
[4] “US carries out air strike against Iran-backed militia target in Syria.” The National, February 26, 2021.
[5] Knights, Michael. “Rockets over Erbil: How to Respond to an Iraqi Militia Outrage.” The Washington Institute, February 16, 2021.
[6] Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[7] Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.; Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013; Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015.
[8] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015; Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[9] “Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada.” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown; Isakhan, Benjamin. “The Islamic State Attacks on Shia Holy Sites and the ‘Shrine Protection Narrative’: Threats to Sacred Space as a Mobilization Frame.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 32:4 (2020). 731-2.
[10] Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[11] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “The Return of Iraqi Shi’I Militias to Syria.” Middle East Institute, March 16, 2015.
[12] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8, 2016; Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, October 17, 2014.
[13] Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[14] Smyth, Philip. “Iraqi Shiite Foreign Fighters on the Rise Again in Syria.” The Washington Institute, May 29, 2015.
[15] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, October 17, 2014; Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[16] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “The Return of Iraqi Shi’I Militias to Syria.” The Middle East Institute, March 16, 2015.
[17] Martin, Patrick. “Iraq Situation Report: January 12-19, 2016.” Institute for the Study of War, January 20, 2016.
[18] “Coalition Denies Bombing Iraqi Shiite Militia.” Reuters, August 8, 2017.
[19] Weiss, Caleb. “Iraqi Shia Militia 'Willing to Send Fighters to Yemen'.” Long War Journal, July 9, 2018.
[20] Blanche, Ed. “Iran’s Expansionist Designs Meet US Intrigue.” The Arab Weekly, July 22, 2018.
[21] Cooper, Helene and Eric Schmitt. “U.S. Airstrikes in Syria Target Iran-Backed Militias That Rocketed American Troops in Iraq.” The New York Times, February 25, 2021; “US carries out air strike against Iran-backed militia target in Syria.” The National, February 26, 2021.
[22] "US attacks 'Iranian-backed military infrastructure' in Syria." Al Jazeera, February 26, 2021; Stewart, Idrees Ali, Phil. "U.S. air strikes in Syria target Iranian-backed militia – Pentagon." Reuters, February 26, 2021; "Death toll update | 22 militiamen of Iraqi Hezbollah and Iraqi Popular Mobilization Forces in US strikes on Syria-Iraq border.” The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights, February 26, 2021.
[23] Khaleel, Sangar and Jane Arraf. “Rocket Attack in Iraq Kills a U.S. Military Contractor.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
[24] Hiwa, Shilani. “VIDEO: Kurdistan Region releases footage of suspect confessing to Erbil rocket attack.” Kurdistan 24, March 3, 2021; Knights, Michael. “Why Iran’s Proxies Fear Evidence.” The Washington Institute, March 25, 2021
[25] “US carries out air strike against Iran-backed militia target in Syria.” The National, February 26, 2021.
[26] Knights, Michael. “Rockets over Erbil: How to Respond to an Iraqi Militia Outrage.” The Washington Institute, February 16, 2021.
[27] “The Sayed of the Martyrs Brigades to Rudaw: ‘We did not target Erbil, and those who want to stop the operations should not host the Americans’ (كتائب سيد الشهداء لرووداو: لم نستهدف أربيل وعلى من يريد ايقاف العمليات عدم استضافة الأميركان).” Rudaw, March 4, 2021.
[28] Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013.
[29] Knights, Michael. “Iran’s Foreign Legion: The Role of Iraqi Shiite Militias in Syria.” The Washington Institute, June 27, 2013.
[30] Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[31] Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[32] Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013.
[33] “Treasury Designates Individuals, Entity Fueling Iraqi Insurgency.” Press Office, U.S. Department of the Treasury, January 9, 2008.
[34] Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013.
[35] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015.
[36] Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[37] Rasheed, Ahmed. “In Iraq's Parliament, Shi'ite Militia Leaders Plan to Call the Shots.” Reuters, November 13, 2018.
[38] Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[39] “An Iraqi faction threatens: a very harsh response awaits any American strikes (فصيل عراقي يتوعد: رد قاسي جداً بانتظار أي ضربات أمريكية). Shafaq News, March 28, 2020; Rwanduzy, Mohammed. “Muqtada al-Sadr receives PMF leaders in Qom to discuss US troop presence in Iraq.” Rudaw English, January 14, 2020; Isakhan, Benjamin. “The Islamic State Attacks on Shia Holy Sites and the ‘Shrine Protection Narrative’: Threats to Sacred Space as a Mobilization Frame.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 32:4 (2020). 731; Knights, Michael. “Biden’s Warning to Iran and Its Proxies: Implications of the Syria Strike.” The Washington Institute, February 26, 2021; ‘Laqa’ khas ma’a Abu Ala’ al-Wala’i amin ‘am Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada’ [Exclusive interview with Kataib Sayyid al-Shuhada leader Abu Ala al-Walai], 6 July 2017, 5:15–5:54, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNuVkz3ehYA.
[40] Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[41] Knights, Michael. “Iran’s Foreign Legion: The Role of Iraqi Shiite Militias in Syria.” The Washington Institute, June 27, 2013.
[42] Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013; Smyth, Phillip. “Hizballah Cavalcade: Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada Emerges: Updates on the New Iraqi Shia Militia Supply Fighters to Syria.” Jihadology, September 9, 2013.
[43] Knights, Michael, and Hamdi Malik. “The Al-Abbas Combat Division Model: Reducing Iranian Influence in Iraq's Security Forces.” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, August 22, 2017.
[44] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8, 2016.
[45] Mansour, Renad. “The ‘Hybrid Armed Actors’ Paradox: A Necessary Compromise?” War on the Rocks, January 21, 2021; Alshamary, Marsin. “How Iraq’s economic crisis affects its traditional and non-traditional security sector.” The Brookings Institution, January 15, 2021.
[46] Roggio, Bill. “Popular Mobilization Committee Militia Threatens to ‘Strike and Destroy’ the Saudi Government.” The Long War Journal, October 30, 2015.
[47] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8, 2016.
[48] Weiss, Caleb. “Iraqi Shia militias show US-made equipment on road to Samarra.” The Long War Journal, Threat Matrix, 4 March 2016. Web. 3 April 2016; “Iraq: Turning a Blind Eye: The Arming of the Popular Mobilization Units.” Amnesty International, January 5, 2017. 22-25, 33-34.
[49] “Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada.” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown.
[50] Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[51] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “The Return of Iraqi Shi’I Militias to Syria.” Middle East Institute, March 16, 2015; Isakhan, Benjamin. “The Islamic State Attacks on Shia Holy Sites and the ‘Shrine Protection Narrative’: Threats to Sacred Space as a Mobilization Frame.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 32:4 (2020). 733.
[52] Isakhan, Benjamin. “The Islamic State Attacks on Shia Holy Sites and the ‘Shrine Protection Narrative’: Threats to Sacred Space as a Mobilization Frame.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(4) (2020). 732.
[53] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, October 17, 2014
[54] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8 2016.
[55] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015; Rached, Kardo, and Ahmed Omar Bali. “Shia Armed Groups and the Future of Iraq.” International Studies (Łódź, Poland) 23(1) (2019). 230.
[56] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015; Rached, Kardo, and Ahmed Omar Bali. “Shia Armed Groups and the Future of Iraq.” International Studies (Łódź, Poland) 23(1) (2019). 230.
[57] Isakhan, Benjamin. “The Islamic State Attacks on Shia Holy Sites and the ‘Shrine Protection Narrative’: Threats to Sacred Space as a Mobilization Frame.” Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(4) (2020). 731-2.
[58] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, 17 Oct. 2014.
[59] “An Iraqi faction threatens: a very harsh response awaits any American strikes (فصيل عراقي يتوعد: رد قاسي جداً بانتظار أي ضربات أمريكية). Shafaq News, March 28, 2020.
[60] Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3 2018.
[61] Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013; Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada.” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown.
[62] “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada - Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, October 17, 2014; Rasheed, Ahmed. “In Iraq's Parliament, Shi'ite Militia Leaders Plan to Call the Shots.” Reuters, November 13, 2018.
[63] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, October 17, 2014; Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[64] Roggio, Bill. “Popular Mobilization Committee Militia Threatens to ‘Strike and Destroy’ the Saudi Government.” The Long War Journal, 30 Oct. 2015.
[65] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015; Rasheed, Ahmed. “In Iraq's Parliament, Shi'ite Militia Leaders Plan to Call the Shots.” Reuters, November 13, 2018; Majidyar, Ahmad. “Iran-backed Fateh Alliance seeks to win or play kingmaker in upcoming Iraqi elections.” The Middle East Institute, May 3, 2018.
[66] “Syrian rebels' march on Damascus becomes fight for their survival (+video)". The Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 2015; Fadel, Leith. “Patience is a virtue; Syrian Army launches an offensive in Al-Quneitra.” Al-Masdar News, February 9, 2015.
[67] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8, 2016.
[68] Smyth, Phillip. “From Karbala to Sayyida Zaynab: Iraqi Fighters in Syria’s Shi’a Militias.” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, August 27, 2013.
[69] Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[70] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Kata'ib Sayyid al-Shuhada- Threats to Saudi Arabia: Translation and Analysis.” Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi, 17 Oct. 2014.
[71] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015.
[72] “An Iraqi faction threatens: a very harsh response awaits any American strikes (فصيل عراقي يتوعد: رد قاسي جداً بانتظار أي ضربات أمريكية). Shafaq News, March 28, 2020.
[73] "Government Assessment of the Syrian Government's Use of Chemical Weapons on August 21, 2013.” The White House, August 30, 2013; “SYRIA: REPORTED CHEMICAL WEAPONS USE.” U.K. Joint Intelligence Organisation. 29 August 2013; Gilbert, K. “The Rise of Shi’ite Militias and the Post-Arab Spring Sectarian Threat.” International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, October 2013.
[74] “Syrian rebels' march on Damascus becomes fight for their survival (+video).” Christian Science Monitor, March 11, 2015; Fadel, Leith. “Patience is a virtue; Syrian Army launches an offensive in Al-Quneitra.” Al-Masdar News, February 9, 2015; “Iran mourns 7 Afghans killed fighting for Syria's Assad.” Middle East Eye, March 5, 2015.
[75] Martin, Patrick. “Iraq Situation Report: January 12-19, 2016.” Institute for the Study of War, January 20, 2016; Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[76] Khaleel, Sangar and Jane Arraf. “Rocket Attack in Iraq Kills a U.S. Military Contractor.” The New York Times, February 15, 2021.
[77] Hiwa, Shilani. “VIDEO: Kurdistan Region releases footage of suspect confessing to Erbil rocket attack.” Kurdistan 24, March 3, 2021; Knights, Michael. “Why Iran’s Proxies Fear Evidence.” The Washington Institute, March 25, 2021
[78] “US carries out air strike against Iran-backed militia target in Syria.” The National, February 26, 2021.
[79] Knights, Michael. “Rockets over Erbil: How to Respond to an Iraqi Militia Outrage.” The Washington Institute, February 16, 2021.
[80] “Imposition of Nonproliferation Measures Against Foreign Persons, Including a Ban on U.S. Government Procurement.” U.S. State Department, February 14, 2020. https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2020-02993
[81] “Treasury Designates Individuals, Entity Fueling Iraqi Insurgency.” Press Office, U.S. Department of the Treasury, January 9, 2008.
[82] Rwanduzy, Mohammed. “Muqtada al-Sadr receives PMF leaders in Qom to discuss US troop presence in Iraq.” Rudaw English, January 14, 2020.
[83] Martin, Patrick. “Iraq Situation Report: January 12-19, 2016.” Institute for the Study of War, January 20, 2016; Qaidaari, Abbas. “Comparing Iraq’s Shiite Forces to Iran’s Basij.” Al-Monitor, 11 May 2015. Web. 10 May 2016.; Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[84] “Hashid Shaabi (Popular Mobilisation Committees).” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown; Knights, Michael, Hamdi Malik, Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi. “Honored, Not Contained: The Future of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces.” The Washington Institute, March 23, 2020.
[85] Al-Tamimi, Aymenn Jawad. “Liwa al-Sayyida Ruqayya: Recruiting the Shi'a of Damascus.” Syria Comment, August 12, 2015.
[86] “Kata’ib Sayyid al-Shuhada.” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown; Knights, Michael. “Iran’s Foreign Legion: The Role of Iraqi Shiite Militias in Syria.” The Washington Institute, June 27, 2013.
[87] Weiss, Caleb. “Iranian-backed militia seen with US tank in Iraq.” The Long War Journal Threat Matrix, February 8, 2016; Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015; Smyth, Phillip. “All the Ayatollah’s Men.” Foreign Policy, September 18, 2014.
[88] Nada, Garrett, and Mattisan Rowan. “Part 2: Pro-Iran Militias in Iraq.” The Wilson Center, May 3, 2018.
[89] Cigar, Norman. “Iraqi’s Shia Warlords and Their Militias.” Strategic Studies Institute, June 2015. Web. May 2016; Rached, Kardo, and Ahmed Omar Bali. “Shia Armed Groups and the Future of Iraq.” International Studies (Łódź, Poland) 23(1) (2019). 230.
[90] “Hashid Shaabi (Popular Mobilisation Committees).” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, date unknown; Knights, Michael, Hamdi Malik, Aymenn Jawad Al-Tamimi. “Honored, Not Contained: The Future of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces.” The Washington Institute, March 23, 2020.